1) India-China Relations @75: A Journey of Cooperation, Conflict, and Caution

GS 2: International Relations: India-China Relations

Why is it in the news?

• On April 1, 1950, India became the first non-socialist bloc country to establish diplomatic relations with the People’s Republic of China (PRC). This was during the early phase of the Cold War, when the global landscape was dominated by two opposing ideological camps. The PRC had just been established six months earlier after a prolonged and violent civil war.
• India, under PM Jawaharlal Nehru, was committed to a non-aligned foreign policy and found common ground with China — both being ancient civilizations emerging from the shadow of colonial repression. Nehru admired China’s culture and referred to it as “India’s old-time friend” in his writings.
• Despite this initial optimism, the relationship was marred by early differences and deep-rooted suspicions, particularly over the undefined 3,000-km border. The 1962 war — India’s only military defeat since independence — was the lowest point in bilateral ties. However, geographic proximity has ensured that each downturn in relations is followed by efforts to reconcile between the “elephant” and the “dragon.”
• Notably, even after tensions like the 2020 Ladakh standoff, economic interdependence has kept diplomatic channels open — with China remaining India’s largest trading partner in FY 2023-24.

An Analysis

Early Mistrust and the Tibet Question

• China’s refusal to accept the British-era Simla Agreement of 1914, including the McMahon Line demarcating the India-Tibet boundary, sowed early seeds of mistrust.
• Nehru’s hope was that early recognition of the PRC might lead to favourable negotiations on the border issue. For China, diplomatic ties with India — a leading non-aligned nation — would increase its legitimacy among post-colonial countries.
• However, former Foreign Secretary Vijay Gokhale, in his book The Long Game: How the Chinese Negotiate with India, argued that India may have conceded too quickly to Chinese preconditions, such as accepting the One-China Policy without negotiating Indian interests. This meant India could not recognize Taiwan as a sovereign nation.
• Meanwhile, Chinese leaders viewed India’s ties with Western powers like the UK as a sign of weakness and a channel for Western influence. In October 1950, China’s invasion of Tibet raised alarms in India. Deputy PM Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel warned Nehru to consider China a potential adversary.
• Nonetheless, in 1954, India and China signed the Panchsheel Agreement, based on five principles: mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty, mutual non-aggression, mutual non-interference, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence.

Breakdown of Panchsheel and the 1962 War

• The fragile harmony was shattered in 1959 after anti-China protests in Lhasa, Tibet’s capital, and India’s decision to grant asylum to the Dalai Lama. According to former Foreign Secretary Shyam Saran in How China Sees India and the World, this act convinced Beijing that India was interfering in China’s sovereignty over Tibet.
• Subsequently, border skirmishes increased and strategic mistrust deepened. The lofty ideals of “Hindi Chini Bhai Bhai” and Panchsheel soon clashed with on-ground realities.
• The eventual 1962 war resulted in India losing over 3,000 soldiers and approximately 38,000 sq km of territory in Aksai Chin, marking a significant blow to bilateral ties.

Geopolitics and the Strategic Triangle

• While the border issue was critical, it was not the sole determinant of bilateral relations. China’s approach to India has been shaped by a broader triangular geopolitical perspective involving the Soviet Union (now Russia) and the United States.
• Experts argue that China has long perceived India both as a regional competitor for status and as an unequal actor in Asia. Moreover, Chinese leaders often omitted India in their diplomatic writings.
• Post-1962, India’s growing closeness with the USSR became a concern for Beijing, particularly as China’s own relations with Moscow soured. This led China to deepen ties with Pakistan.
• PM Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China in 1988 marked a significant thaw in relations. Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping, who spearheaded China’s economic reforms in 1978, emphasized that the 21st century could not be Asia’s without cooperation between India and China. Gandhi responded firmly, reiterating that India would not cede any more territory.

Post-Cold War Realignments and Confidence-Building

• By the late 1980s and early 1990s, significant transformations had taken place. Nehru and Mao had passed away, China had liberalized its economy, the US and China had established formal diplomatic relations in 1979, and India had integrated Sikkim in 1975 — a move Beijing initially did not accept. Both nations also became nuclear powers, with China testing in 1964 and India in 1974.
• The disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991 and India’s economic liberalization redefined foreign policy priorities. Former Foreign Secretary Shivshankar Menon, in his book Choices: Inside the Making of India’s Foreign Policy, wrote that the Soviet collapse made previous diplomatic assumptions obsolete, prompting India to seek peace along the border while postponing more contentious boundary issues.
• Menon was involved in negotiating the 1993 Border Peace and Tranquility Agreement during PM Narasimha Rao’s visit to China. The agreement, a significant move considering the lingering trauma of the 1962 defeat, included military confidence-building measures and troop limitations near the Line of Actual Control (LAC) based on “mutual and equal security.” However, the clause on maintaining “minimum levels” of troops has yet to be meaningfully acted upon.

Economic Ascent and Diverging Trajectories

• At the dawn of the 21st century, India and China were seen as emerging global economic powers. Initiatives such as the 2003 Special Representatives mechanism and China’s recognition of Sikkim that same year signalled progress. However, economic disparities quickly widened.
• Between 1987 and 2023, China’s economy soared from $272 billion to $17.7 trillion, while India’s rose from $279 billion to $3.56 trillion. As Shyam Saran noted, Chinese scholars unofficially portrayed this disparity to suggest India should accept its secondary status and defer to Chinese interests. This created an implicit hierarchy in bilateral perceptions.

Strategic Challenges and Indian Lessons

• The current geopolitical climate is arguably more uncertain than ever before. China views its bilateral relations with India through the prism of its global rivalry with the United States. Its ambition to establish regional dominance is part of a larger goal of “national rejuvenation” following the so-called “Century of Humiliation” by colonial powers.
• India’s strategic alignment with the West, especially the US, is thus an irritant for Beijing. However, India has much to learn from China’s rapid rise — particularly its focus on human capital through quality education and massive infrastructure investments. Still, India is encouraged to pursue a development model that is environmentally sustainable and potentially more appealing.
• Enhancing India’s military preparedness, particularly in the Indian Ocean Region, is vital. Saran warned that internal challenges like narrow nationalism, communal discord, and efforts to homogenize India’s diverse society could undermine India’s strengths in the long run.

Way Forward

• The 2020 Galwan Valley clash dispelled assumptions that India would avoid military escalation. According to Gokhale, Indian policymakers now possess greater clarity in dealing with China.
• On the global stage, many countries, especially in Southeast Asia, have begun resisting China’s expansionist stance. Despite tensions, Gokhale emphasized the need for open dialogue, especially between two neighbouring nuclear powers.
• Recent signs of thaw include a meeting between President Xi Jinping and PM Narendra Modi in October on the sidelines of the BRICS Summit in Kazan, Russia. While the future of these diplomatic efforts remains uncertain, 75 years into the bilateral relationship, there is still space for both caution and conciliation in India-China ties.

2) 7 Years of Stand-Up India: Empowering Marginalized Entrepreneurs through Inclusive Growth

GS 3: Economy: Stand-Up India Scheme, a tool for Inclusive Growth

Context

• Since its launch on 5th April 2016, the Stand-Up India Scheme has aimed to empower SC, ST, and women entrepreneurs by facilitating access to bank loans for starting new businesses.
• The core objective has been to break financial and social barriers for marginalized communities and women, enabling them to participate meaningfully in the country’s economic landscape.
• Over the past seven years, the scheme has not only provided financial assistance but has also played a pivotal role in nurturing entrepreneurial dreams, creating livelihoods, and driving inclusive growth across India.

Empowering SC, ST, and Women Entrepreneurs

• Between March 2018 and March 2024, the scheme recorded significant financial empowerment among SC, ST, and women beneficiaries.
• For the Scheduled Castes (SC), the number of accounts grew from 9,399 to 46,248, while the loan amounts increased from Rs. 1,826.21 crore to Rs. 9,747.11 crore. Similarly, Scheduled Tribe (ST) accounts rose from 2,841 to 15,228, with sanctioned loans increasing from Rs. 574.65 crore to Rs. 3,244.07 crore.
• Women entrepreneurs experienced even more notable growth. From 2018 to 2024, the number of women-led accounts rose from 55,644 to 1,90,844. Correspondingly, the sanctioned loan amounts grew from Rs. 12,452.37 crore to Rs. 43,984.10 crore.

Conclusion

• The Stand-Up India Scheme has proven to be a transformative initiative by enabling SC, ST, and women entrepreneurs to translate their business ideas into reality. With impressive achievements in terms of loan sanctions and account coverage, the scheme continues to be a driver of inclusive development in India.
• More than just a credit facilitation programme, Stand-Up India is about creating opportunities, inspiring social and economic change, and turning aspirations into real accomplishments.

3) Bridging Progress: The Rise of the New Pamban Bridge

GS 3: Economy: State-of-the-art infrastructure

Why is it in the news?

• PM Narendra Modi will inaugurate the New Pamban Bridge on April 6 during his visit to Tamil Nadu, coinciding with the auspicious occasion of Ram Navami.
• This state-of-the-art infrastructure marvel is India’s first vertical lift railway sea bridge, symbolizing a significant leap in the nation’s engineering and transport capabilities. It connects Rameswaram Island with mainland India, replacing the century-old cantilever bridge originally built in 1914 by British engineers.

Historical Context and Need for a New Bridge

• The original Pamban Bridge served as a critical lifeline for pilgrims, tourists, and traders for over a hundred years. However, the harsh marine environment and increasing transportation demands made it obsolete. Recognizing the need for a modern alternative, the Government of India sanctioned the construction of the New Pamban Bridge in 2019.
• The project, undertaken by Rail Vikas Nigam Limited (RVNL), a Navratna PSU under the Ministry of Railways, aimed to create a durable and technologically advanced structure that blends heritage with innovation.

Key Features of the Bridge

• The New Pamban Bridge spans 2.07 kilometres across the Palk Strait in Tamil Nadu. It provides a 72.5-meter navigational span that can be lifted up to 17 meters, allowing larger vessels to pass beneath without disruption. This vertical lift design sets it apart from its predecessor.
• Additionally, the bridge stands 3 meters higher than the existing structure, enhancing maritime passage. While the substructure is designed for two railway tracks, the superstructure currently supports a single line.
• Constructed using modern materials such as stainless steel reinforcement and high-grade protective paint, the bridge includes fully welded joints and a special polysiloxane coating to resist marine corrosion. These features ensure longevity, durability, and minimal maintenance.

Vision Behind the Project

• The construction of the New Pamban Bridge was guided by the vision of providing future-ready infrastructure. The old bridge, no longer capable of handling modern rail demands, needed to be replaced with a structure that could support faster trains, heavier traffic, and uninterrupted maritime navigation. This project was conceived to ensure durable connectivity and promote regional economic development.
• The bridge’s design accounts for natural challenges such as seismic activity, cyclones, and corrosion, ensuring it remains operational and safe for over a century. It exemplifies India’s move toward advanced infrastructure planning.

Modern Engineering Techniques Used

• Given the marine conditions and limited construction space, conventional lift-span launching methods were not feasible.
• Engineers adopted an innovative pier-to-pier launching method known as the ‘Auto Launching Method based on Relationship Principle.’ This technique allowed precise and safe installation despite challenging conditions.

India on the Global Infrastructure Map

• The New Pamban Bridge places India alongside nations known for iconic bridge structures such as the Golden Gate Bridge (USA), Tower Bridge (UK), and Oresund Bridge (Denmark-Sweden).
• While distinct in design, these bridges symbolize global engineering achievement. The New Pamban Bridge now stands among them as a shining example of India’s growing infrastructural strength and adaptability.

Safety and Environmental features

Conclusion

• The New Pamban Bridge exemplifies India’s ability to merge tradition with technological innovation. By overcoming natural and logistical hurdles, it redefines modern sea bridge construction in the country.
• This vertical lift railway bridge is more than just a mode of transport—it is a symbol of progress, sustainability, and regional development. As it facilitates smoother rail and maritime movement, the New Pamban Bridge reaffirms what India can achieve with vision, precision, and resilience.

4) CSIR-NAL Signs Historic Technology Transfer Deal for Indigenous Manufacturing of HANSA-NG Aircraft

GS 3: Science and Technology: Indigenous manufacture of trainer aircraft  

Why is it in the news?

• In a major boost to India’s aerospace sector, the National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL), under the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), has signed its first-ever technology transfer agreement with a private company to manufacture trainer aircraft within the country.

More about the news

• The aircraft in focus is the HANSA-3 NG, a two-seater trainer and the latest version of the HANSA series that has been produced by NAL since 1998. So far, 14 such planes have been developed and used by the Ministry of Civil Aviation and various IITs.
• CSIR Director-General announced that a partnership has been sealed with Pioneer Clean AMPS Pvt Ltd, which will take on the manufacturing, marketing, servicing, and after-sales responsibilities.
• The HANSA-NG features a Rotax Digital Control Engine, a lightweight composite airframe, a glass cockpit, electrically operated flaps, and a bubble canopy that offers a wide panoramic view, highlighting its modern design and advanced technology.

5) India’s Coal Boom: Surpassing One Billion Tonnes

GS 3: Economy: India’s milestone in coal production

Why is it in the news?

• India reached a major milestone by crossing one billion tonnes (BT) of coal production on 20 March 2025, in FY 2024-25—11 days earlier than the previous year’s 997.83 million tonnes (MT).
• With the fifth-largest coal reserves globally and as the second-largest consumer, coal continues to be a vital component in India’s energy framework, contributing 55% to the national energy mix and powering over 74% of total electricity generation.
• This success has been driven by coordinated efforts of Coal Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs), private sector participants, and nearly 5 lakh mine workers operating across 350+ coal mines. Their relentless dedication and hard work have been instrumental in achieving this landmark.

Growth in Coal Production and Dispatch

• During FY 2024-25, India’s coal production reached 1047.57 MT (Provisional), showing a 4.99% increase from 997.83 MT in FY 2023-24. A significant rise was also observed in coal production by Commercial & Captive and other entities, which collectively reached 197.50 MT (Provisional), marking a 28.11% increase from the previous year’s 154.16 MT.
• On the dispatch front, coal dispatch also crossed the One BT mark, standing at 1024.99 MT (Provisional) in FY 2024-25, a 5.34% rise from 973.01 MT in FY 2023-24. Dispatch by Commercial and Captive entities surged by 31.39% to reach 196.83 MT (Provisional), compared to 149.81 MT in the previous year.

Reduction in Coal Imports

• India’s focus on increasing domestic production has led to a notable decline in coal imports. Between April and December 2024, imports dropped by 8.4% to 183.42 MT, down from 200.19 MT during the same period in FY 2023-24. This reduction saved around $5.43 billion (₹42,315.7 crore) in foreign exchange.
• The Non-Regulated Sector (NRS) witnessed a 12.01% decline, while imports for blending in thermal power plants fell sharply by 29.8%, despite a 3.53% rise in coal-based power generation.
• Government initiatives such as Commercial Coal Mining and Mission Coking Coal played a key role in boosting domestic output, which rose by 6.11% during this period. Though coal is essential for sectors like power, steel, and cement, India still relies on imports for high-grade thermal and coking coal.
• The Ministry of Coal is thus intensifying efforts to strengthen domestic production and reduce import dependence, aligning with the broader goal of a self-reliant and energy-secure Viksit Bharat.

Economic Significance of the Coal Sector

• Coal continues to play a crucial role in India’s energy and economic ecosystem. Despite the rise of renewable energy, coal-based power is expected to retain its dominance, with projections indicating a 55% share in 2030 and 27% by 2047.

Key contributions include:

• Railways & Revenue: Coal is the largest contributor to railway freight, with a near 49% share, generating Rs. 82,275 crores in FY 2022-23. This accounts for over 33% of total railway earnings.
• Government Earnings: The coal sector contributes over Rs. 70,000 crores annually to central and state governments through royalties, GST, and levies. In FY 2022-23, royalty collections alone touched Rs. 23,184.86 crore, supporting infrastructure and socio-economic development in mining regions.
• Employment Generation: Over 239,000 people are directly employed by Coal India Ltd, with thousands more engaged in contractual, mining, and transport operations.
• Economic Growth: The sector has consistently attracted large capital investments, with an average of Rs. 18,255 crores in annual capital expenditure over the last five years, driving infrastructure expansion and resource optimization.

Coal Gasification Initiatives

To promote clean coal usage, the government has launched multiple coal gasification initiatives:

• A financial package of ₹8,500 crore was approved on 24 January 2024 to support coal/lignite gasification projects for both PSUs and private firms.
• Coal India Limited (CIL) will invest in joint ventures with BHEL and GAIL to advance gasification technology.
• The “Production of Syngas” was added to the NRS linkage auctions policy in 2022, with a seven-year timeline for project commissioning.
• Commercial coal block auctions now offer a 50% revenue share rebate for coal used in gasification, provided at least 10% of total output is used for this purpose.

Safety Audits in Coal Mines

• To ensure worker safety, the Ministry of Coal implemented “Safety Health Management System Audit” guidelines in December 2023, requiring annual audits. A dedicated “National Coal Mine Safety Report Portal” was launched on 17 December 2024, featuring an audit submission module.

Major safety reforms include:

• Regulations: The Coal Mines Regulations of 1957 were updated to the 2017 version, enhancing emergency response, evacuation, and mechanisation protocols.
• Technological Advancements: Adoption of blast-free mining technologies like Continuous Miner, PSLW in underground mines, and surface mining tools like Eccentric Ripper and High Wall mining for opencast projects.
• Real-Time Monitoring: Use of Environmental Telemonitoring Systems (ETMS), gas chromatographs, and instrumentation for monitoring strata and mine conditions.
• Dust & Slope Control: Implementation of fog canons, mist sprays, and slope monitoring using Total Stations, 3D Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS), and Slope Stability Radars.
• Training: Use of simulator-based modules and Virtual Reality (VR) training for safety, equipment handling, and emergency preparedness.

Environmental and Worker Welfare Measures

• Environmental Impact Assessments are conducted prior to project approval, with ongoing environmental monitoring enforced. Mines Rules, 1955 (under the Mines Act, 1952) ensure the provision of essential amenities like first aid, shelters, and welfare officers.
• Additional support includes clean water, housing, scholarships, financial aid, health services, and compassionate appointments for affected families.
• Skill development is a key focus, with structured training for fire safety, blasting, drilling, and regular workshops for safety committees and workmen inspectors.

Conclusion

• India’s coal sector stands at a transformative juncture, delivering on both economic and energy fronts. The record-breaking production, improved dispatch, strategic import reduction, and forward-looking coal gasification initiatives highlight its evolving role in national development.
• With consistent emphasis on safety, environmental protection, and worker welfare, India’s coal industry is laying a strong foundation for sustainable growth. As the country advances toward becoming a developed, energy-secure nation by 2047, the coal sector will remain a crucial pillar in this journey.

6) NCDRC Dismisses Case Against WazirX Citing ‘Nebulous’ Crypto Regime

GS 3: Economy: Concern over cryptocurrency regulation

Why is it in the news?

• In January 2025, several Indian users approached the National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission (NCDRC), alleging service deficiencies and unfair trade practices by cryptocurrency exchange WazirX.

Background: The WazirX Breach and User Complaints

• The issue stemmed from a cybersecurity breach on July 18, 2024, during which approximately $233 million—around 45% of WazirX’s digital asset holdings—were illicitly withdrawn from one of the company’s multisignature (multisig) wallets. These wallets require two or more private keys for processing transactions.
• Following the breach, WazirX suspended withdrawals, causing significant financial losses for users. In September 2024, a Singapore court granted WazirX a four-month moratorium on any legal proceedings, further restricting withdrawals.
• The company later attributed the attack to the North Korea-based Lazarus Group. Subsequently, Indian users filed a case in January 2025, claiming unfair trade practices and service lapses.

Key Questions Before the NCDRC

The NCDRC considered two primary legal questions:

• (1) Whether cryptocurrencies qualify as “goods” under the Consumer Protection Act, 2019 (CPA); and
• (2) Whether the consumer forum has jurisdiction over disputes involving cryptocurrencies.

Crypto as a ‘Good’: Legal Ambiguity

• Under Section 2(21) of the CPA, “goods” refer to every kind of movable property. While the Income Tax Act treats cryptocurrencies—officially termed Virtual Digital Assets (VDAs)—as property and subjects them to a 30% tax since April 2022, the NCDRC highlighted the lack of regulatory clarity.
• It noted that the link between VDAs and consumer services remains “in a nebulous state,” and the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has not taken responsibility for regulating crypto platforms like WazirX, despite concerns over potential financial instability.
• The NCDRC refrained from making a definitive classification, stating that VDAs “could be digital products or goods but are still not recognised as currencies or securities.”

Jurisdictional Limitations of the Consumer Forum  

• The NCDRC ruled that no specific laws currently exist to regulate or resolve claims related to cryptocurrencies, limiting the consumer forum’s ability to investigate or adjudicate such cases. However, the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) may be invoked depending on the nature of the alleged fraud.
• Given the complexity of such issues, the NCDRC stated that consumer courts are not equipped to conduct thorough investigations, and emphasised that either the legislature or higher judiciary (SC or High Court) would need to explicitly authorise such jurisdiction before the NCDRC could intervene.

Cryptocurrency Regulation in India: Current Status  

• India has not banned possession or transactions involving cryptocurrencies. However, the RBI does not recognise them as legal tender and has historically tried to limit their use. In 2018, the RBI issued a notification barring regulated entities from dealing in Virtual Currencies (VCs). This effectively prevented banks and financial institutions from providing services to crypto businesses.
• Importantly, the RBI did not ban crypto trading outright. In 2020, the Supreme Court of India struck down the RBI’s notification, affirming the central bank’s right to regulate VCs but stating that the move violated Article 19(1)(g) of the Constitution—the right to practise any profession or business. The Court held that the RBI failed to demonstrate that crypto exchanges negatively impacted financial institutions.
• Despite several attempts, the Indian Parliament has not passed any specific legislation regulating cryptocurrencies. In 2021, the Centre introduced the ‘Cryptocurrency and Regulation of Official Digital Currency Bill’, which proposed a ban on private cryptocurrencies and the introduction of a Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) overseen by a regulatory board.
• However, the bill was never taken up for discussion, and there has been no progress on crypto legislation since then.

Conclusion

• The NCDRC’s dismissal of the WazirX case underscores the regulatory vacuum surrounding cryptocurrencies in India. While courts and regulators continue to grapple with the evolving nature of VDAs, consumers remain vulnerable to financial risks.
• The case highlights the urgent need for a comprehensive legal and regulatory framework to address crypto-related disputes and safeguard investor interests. Until such a regime is established, consumer redressal bodies may remain powerless in addressing grievances involving digital assets.

7) Bilateral Naval Exercise INDRA-2025: Strengthening Maritime Cooperation

GS 3: Defence: Naval exercises

Why is it in the news?

• The 14th edition of the bilateral naval exercise INDRA-2025 between India and Russia was conducted from 28 March to 2 April 2025.

More about the news

• The exercise featured a wide array of structured drills and complex manoeuvres aimed at enhancing interoperability and coordination in addressing common maritime threats.
• Simulated engagements and joint operations demonstrated the combined combat capabilities of both navies, reinforcing their shared commitment to maritime order, global peace, and regional stability. The exercise offered valuable operational experience and improved the collective readiness to tackle contemporary maritime security challenges.
• INDRA-2025 also facilitated the exchange of best practices, deepening mutual understanding of operational doctrines and enhancing the ability to conduct seamless joint operations.
• Since its launch in 2003, the INDRA series has been a key pillar of India-Russia defence relations, underscoring the importance of maritime cooperation in countering shared security concerns.

8) NATO States Withdraw from Landmine Treaty Amid Rising Threats from Russia

GS 2: International Relations: Ottawa Convention

Why is it in the news?

• In a significant shift, NATO members Poland, Finland, and the three Baltic states — Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania — have recently initiated the process to withdraw from the Ottawa Convention, which bans the use of anti-personnel landmines.
• These countries cite growing military threats from Russia as the primary reason behind their decision. The move marks a potential reversal of decades-long global disarmament efforts and campaigning by activists advocating for a total ban on landmines, which continue to pose dangers to civilians long after wars have ended.

Implications of Quitting the Ottawa Convention

• The 1997 Ottawa Convention, also known as the Mine Ban Treaty, was one of several disarmament agreements formed after the Cold War. It prohibits the production, use, stockpiling, and transfer of anti-personnel landmines. Countries exiting the treaty will regain the right to undertake these activities.
• Among the European nations bordering Russia, all except Norway have signalled their intention to withdraw. Norway has maintained its commitment to the treaty, emphasizing the importance of retaining the stigma associated with these weapons, despite the heightened threat levels.

Strategic Calculations and Russia’s Role

• The decision to pull out is also rooted in concerns that Russia could exploit any ceasefire in the ongoing war in Ukraine to re-arm and potentially target neighbouring states. Officials from the exiting countries argue that leaving the treaty could place them on a more equal strategic footing with Russia.
• Notably, Russia has never signed or ratified the Ottawa Convention, and neither have other influential countries such as the United States, China, India, and Israel.

Impact on Global Demining Efforts

• The withdrawals come at a time when global demining efforts are weakening, partly due to significant funding cuts by the United States. According to the International Campaign to Ban Landmines, US financial support for demining has been “crippled” under Donald Trump’s foreign aid review.
• The US was previously the largest funder of global mine action, contributing over $300 million annually — accounting for about 40% of total international support, as reported by the 2024 Landmine Monitor.
• Although a State Department official stated in March that some humanitarian demining programs had restarted, no further details were provided. The US had earlier implemented major programs in countries such as Iraq, Afghanistan, and Laos.

Humanitarian Toll of Landmines

• Anti-personnel landmines are often concealed underground and are triggered automatically when someone steps on or nears them. Their indiscriminate nature results in a high toll on civilians — over 80% of landmine victims are non-combatants, according to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC).
• The Ottawa Convention also contains provisions to support victims, many of whom face lifelong disabilities and limb loss. As of October 2024, the United Nations reported that Ukraine had become the most heavily mined country in the world. By August 2024, around 1,286 civilian casualties from mines and explosive remnants were recorded.

Stockpiles and Future Production

• Under the treaty’s terms, signatory countries were required to destroy their stockpiles of anti-personnel landmines within four years of joining. However, not all nations have fully complied. Poland has now declared its intention to resume landmine production.
• Furthermore, some countries withdrawing from the Ottawa Convention — including Lithuania — are also contemplating exiting the 2008 Convention on Cluster Munitions. Cluster munitions are explosives that disperse smaller submunitions across a wide area, posing prolonged risks.
• The US, which has not signed the 2008 convention either, transferred cluster munitions to Ukraine in 2023 to aid its defense against Russian aggression.

9) India’s Rising Remittances from Advanced Economies Over Gulf Countries

GS 2: International Relations: India’s remittance landscape

Why is it in the news?

• The Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI) latest Remittances Survey (March 2025) highlights a notable shift in India’s remittance landscape.
• In 2023–24, Advanced Economies (AEs) — particularly the United States, the United Kingdom, Singapore, Canada, and Australia — accounted for more than half of the total remittances to India, surpassing the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, which have historically been the major source.
• This shift reflects broader changes in global migration patterns, India’s labour market strategy, and economic transformations in both host and home countries.

Declining Remittances from the Gulf

• For decades, the six GCC countries — Saudi Arabia, UAE, Qatar, Oman, Bahrain, and Kuwait — have been the largest contributors of remittances due to the significant Indian labour presence in the region. However, several factors have reduced this inflow.
• The COVID-19 pandemic caused job losses and salary cuts, affecting disposable income for remittances. Furthermore, nationalisation policies such as Saudi Arabia’s “Saudisation” or Nitaqat programme, which favour local employment over foreign workers, have diminished employment prospects for Indians.
• Consequently, the UAE’s share of total Indian remittances dropped from 26.9% in 2016-17 to 19.2% in 2023-24. Similarly, Saudi Arabia’s share fell from 11.6% to 6.7%, and Kuwait’s from 6.5% to 3.9% in the same period.
• Despite these declines, normalisation of the Gulf economies could still lead to a recovery in remittance flows.

Rising Inflows from Advanced Economies

• Remittances from AEs have consistently risen over recent years. The US remains the largest contributor, increasing its share from 22.9% in 2016-17 to 27.7% in 2023-24. The UK, Canada, and Singapore have also seen rising shares — from 3% to 10.8%, 3% to 3.8%, and 5.5% to 6.6% respectively during the same period.
• Although the number of Indian migrants in the US is smaller than those in the Gulf, their remittances are higher on a per capita basis due to higher wages, minimum wage policies, and stronger purchasing power of the dollar. Indian professionals in countries like the US, UK, Canada, Germany, and Australia earn significantly more than their counterparts in the Gulf.
• The rise in the number of skilled Indian professionals, especially in STEM, finance, and healthcare sectors, has further boosted remittance volumes. Recent studies on migration corridors like India-Germany, India-Austria, and India-Netherlands confirm this upward trend, though more research is needed.

Future Trends and Migration Policies

• Remittances from AEs, particularly the US, could grow further depending on policy directions. However, restrictive immigration policies, especially under US President Donald Trump, could impact migration patterns. Families face challenges such as children ageing out of dependent-visa status and potential rollbacks on birthright citizenship, which is currently being contested in the US Supreme Court.
• These developments may prompt some migrants to return to India, potentially bringing back resources in the form of remittances and fixed assets. Even those who remain abroad may choose to remit more money to India, similar to Gulf-based migrants who often consider themselves temporary residents.
• Globally, the rise of right-wing politics and restrictive immigration policies may deter permanent settlement and encourage Indian migrants to send larger remittances home as a way of diversifying financial risks.

Contribution of Indian Students

• A growing number of Indian students in AEs is another reason for rising remittance inflows. While pursuing education, they contribute through repayment of loans. After securing employment, they may continue remitting funds to support families in India. However, many students face “wilful deskilling” — accepting low-skill jobs in retail, hospitality, or delivery services to gain permanent residency.
• Research from Canada, the UK, and Kerala Migration Surveys points to this trend, which limits long-term earnings and remittance potential. These young professionals are also more vulnerable to abrupt changes in immigration policy, which can further affect remittance patterns.

Policy Suggestions and Way Forward

• To ensure sustained remittance inflows and safeguard the interests of Indian migrants, India must focus on skill harmonisation and better workforce planning. Highly skilled professionals should be matched with jobs suited to their qualifications, while low-skilled workers must be protected from exploitation and deskilling.
• Promoting bilateral and multilateral mobility agreements can help regulate migration and protect workers from underemployment. By proactively engaging with host countries, India can improve employment conditions for migrants and enhance remittance flows, ensuring both economic gain and social protection.

10) Ramakien Murals of the Grand Palace of Bangkok

GS 1: Culture and History: Cultural significance of Murals

Why is it in the news?

• The Prime Minister recently highlighted the release of an iStamp by the Thai Government that features the Ramakien mural paintings, bringing renewed attention to the cultural and historical significance of these murals.

About the Ramakien Murals

• The Ramakien murals were first painted in 1783 during the reign of King Rama I, who commissioned the adaptation of the Indian epic Ramayana into the Thai version known as the Ramakien.
• These murals hold immense cultural value in Thailand, shaping its literature, dance, and art. They offer a vibrant visual narrative of the Ramakien, portraying the timeless battle between good and evil.
• These exquisite murals are displayed in the Wat Phra Kaew (Temple of the Emerald Buddha), situated within the Grand Palace complex in Bangkok. They are painted on the walls of the Phra Rabiang gallery, a two-kilometre-long corridor that encircles the temple, with 178 mural panels illustrating various episodes from the Ramakien.

India-Thailand Cultural Connect

• Thailand, often identified with the ancient Suvarnabhumi territory, finds mention in the Indian epic Ramayana.
• Historically, Thailand had ancient trade connections with South India, and kingdoms such as Dvaravati and Khmer maintained strong cultural and commercial ties with India. Both Brahmanism and Buddhism coexisted in Thailand, and even today, Indian deities such as Ganesha, Shiva, and Vishnu are widely revered.
• Emperor Ashoka’s dispatch of Buddhist missionaries to Thailand in the 3rd century BCE left a lasting influence on Thai culture and religion.
• The Thai language contains numerous Sanskrit and Pali words, and Thai art and architecture are deeply inspired by Indian styles, particularly visible in temples and religious structures.

Association with Lord Rama

• The Ramakien, or the Thai Ramayana, remains central to Thai heritage, with numerous temples adorned with murals depicting its episodes. The significance of Lord Rama extends to the monarchy as well — the Chakri Dynasty, which began with King Rama I in 1782, has had all its monarchs adopt the title ‘Rama’.
• Moreover, the ancient capital of Ayutthaya, which served as the centre of the Ayutthaya Kingdom (1350–1767), is believed to have derived its name from the Indian city Ayodhya, further reinforcing the deep cultural linkages.

Modern Diplomatic and Cultural Relations

• Diplomatic ties between India and Thailand were formally established in 1947, and the two countries celebrated 75 years of bilateral relations in 2022.
• Institutions like the Thai-Bharat Cultural Lodge, founded in 1940, play a key role in promoting educational and cultural exchanges. Thai citizens continue to visit India frequently, especially to Buddhist pilgrimage sites, underscoring the strong religious and cultural connections.

Recent Initiatives

• Recent efforts to highlight Indo-Thai cultural connections include exhibitions such as “Indo-Siam Connect”, which showcase the shared civilizational heritage.
• Joint academic and research collaborations are also ongoing, aimed at deepening the mutual understanding between the two countries.