Scamming Users: The Role of Social Engineering and Malicious APKs

GS 3: Internal Security: Cybercrime exploitation

Why is it in the news?

• In mid-October, a traveller reported losing nearly ₹1 lakh while attempting to book lounge access at Bengaluru airport. The scam began when she was prompted to download a malicious APK (Android Package format) file, disguised as a regular app, via a WhatsApp message from an international number.
• After clicking the link and granting screen mirroring access during a video call with a supposed customer care adviser, she later discovered unauthorized transactions totalling ₹87,125 to a PhonePe account. Additional transaction attempts were declined as her credit card had reached its limit.
• The situation worsened when her contacts found themselves unable to reach her; instead, a man answered her calls, likely due to malicious call forwarding set up on her device.

More about the news

• The traveller reported being directed to a fake website to download the malicious app, which has since been taken down. The URL, “Loungepass.in,” was shared via a WhatsApp business account associated with an international number.
• Alarmingly, this fraudulent site appeared among the top search results on Google, indicating significant gaps in the verification processes for online businesses. In contrast, com is a legitimate platform for pre-booking airport lounge access. Cybercriminals used social engineering tactics to mislead the traveller to the fraudulent site, a common strategy among threat actors.
• Importantly, Apple’s iOS prevents the direct download of apps through links that bypass the official App Store, which enforces strict security protocols. The technical sophistication of this scam highlights how these vulnerabilities can be exploited.

The Cybercrime Landscape in India

• The cybercrime situation in India is alarming. In 2023, citizens reported losses totalling ₹66.66 crore across 4,850 online scams. A report from the Indian Cybercrime Coordination Centre (I4C) indicated that digital financial frauds reached an astonishing ₹1.25 lakh crore over the past three years.
• The National Cybercrime Reporting Portal (NCRP) noted that victims experienced losses of at least ₹10,319 crore due to digital financial fraud in 2023, alongside 5,252 suspicious URLs identified.
• Furthermore, a report by the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Finance on cybersecurity and rising incidents of cyber and white-collar crimes revealed that domestic fraud reported by Supervising Entities (SE) reached ₹2,537.35 crore in FY23.
• The combination of advanced technical skills, social engineering tactics, and an increase in data leaks exacerbates the issue. In 2023, India ranked fifth globally for the number of breached accounts, with 5.3 million accounts compromised.

Conclusion

• Given the persistence of scams facilitated by social engineering and technical expertise, users are urged to exercise caution when clicking on unverified links, downloading new apps, and scanning QR codes.
• Additionally, it’s advisable to regularly check for compromised passwords across online accounts and to review credit card statements for any unauthorized transactions.

 Brazil’s cautious approach to the Belt and Road Initiative

GS 2: International Relations: Belt and Road Initiative

Why is it in the news?

• The Brazilian government has recently shown reluctance to join China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), potentially becoming the second BRICS nation after India to avoid participating in the global infrastructure project launched in 2013.
• Celso Amorim, Chief Adviser on Foreign Policy to Brazilian President Lula, underscored Brazil’s preference for developing “synergy” in its own infrastructure projects over signing a formal “accession contract” with China. Further Amorim explained that Brazil favours flexible partnerships, allowing it to design and control projects while remaining open to Chinese funding in areas like infrastructure, solar energy, and electric vehicles.
• He also hinted that some of these projects could involve collaboration with other South American countries, and highlighted the potential geopolitical partnerships with China, including a proposed peace plan for Ukraine.

Brazil’s Unique Position Among South American Nations

• Brazil’s stance is significant, as it remains one of only four South American countries not yet part of the BRI, unlike most of its neighbours. Previous Brazilian presidents, such as Jair Bolsonaro and Michel Temer, were open to Chinese investments but avoided formalizing their relationship with an official Memorandum of Understanding (MoU).
• As of December 2023, about 150 countries globally have signed the BRI MoU, with Brazil and India notably standing apart as non-participating BRICS members. Russia, while involved in some BRI projects related to energy and transportation, has also refrained from signing the MoU, instead opting for a China-Eurasian Economic Union agreement.
• Although Brazil President Lula had previously shown interest in exploring BRI’s potential benefits, Amorim’s recent statements suggest that Brazil views the risks of dependency on China as greater than the potential rewards.

India’s Reasons for Staying Out of the BRI

• India’s decision to abstain from the BRI, announced in 2017, was based on three primary concerns:

1) Sovereignty issues, particularly relating to BRI projects in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir;

2) Fears that smaller countries could fall into debt traps and face environmental challenges; and

3) A lack of transparency that hinted at China’s larger geopolitical motives.

• Brazilian officials share similar worries, especially regarding the rising dependence of CELAC (Community of Latin American and Caribbean States) nations on Chinese investments.
• Despite Brazil-China trade reaching $180 billion, with annual Chinese investments in Brazil totalling $3 billion—the highest in Latin America—Brazil remains wary of excessive reliance on Chinese funding.
• Further, the upcoming events, including the G-20 summit in Rio de Janeiro and Chinese President Xi Jinping’s visit to Brazil, may further clarify Brazil’s official stance.

Diminishing Appeal of the BRI

• Since its inception over a decade ago, the BRI has gradually lost some of its initial appeal. Of the 150 participating countries, 44 are in Sub-Saharan Africa, with others spread across Europe, East Asia, South America, and West Asia-North Africa.
• Several factors have contributed to the BRI’s declining attraction, including China’s slowing economy and a shift toward more stringent loan conditions following the COVID-19 pandemic.
• Many countries have raised concerns about loan conditions, which often involve Chinese companies and labour, as well as substantial collateral requirements, such as those that led Sri Lanka to lose control of the Hambantota port.
• S. opposition to the BRI has also influenced its popularity, with Italian Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni recently announcing her country’s decision not to renew its MoU. Following a visit from U.S. Trade Representative, who encouraged Brazil to evaluate the BRI “objectively,” China’s Embassy in Brasilia criticized the U.S. for what it called interference in Brazil’s sovereign right to choose its partners.
• Given the remaining ambiguity, some analysts speculate that President Lula may delay a definitive decision on the BRI until after the U.S. elections on November 5, suggesting he could be keeping his options open.

 Laika: The First Living Creature to Orbit Earth on Sputnik 2

GS 3: Science and Technology: First living creature to orbit Earth

Why is it in the news?

• On November 3, 1957, the Soviet Union launched ‘Sputnik 2’ into orbit, carrying Laika, a dog and the first living creature to orbit Earth. This mission was a crucial test for assessing human space travel safety but ended up being a one-way journey for Laika.

The Sputnik 2 Mission

• After the successful launch of Sputnik 1, a satellite designed to emit beeps while orbiting Earth, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev requested another mission timed with the 40th anniversary of Russia’s Bolshevik Revolution. In response, engineers quickly developed Sputnik 2 with a special compartment for a dog.
• At this time, the Soviet Union was ahead in space exploration, leaving the United States lagging. Laika’s launch on Sputnik 2 further underscored Soviet leadership in space and widened the technological gap with the U.S.

Why Laika Was Chosen

• Before sending humans to space, scientists were concerned about whether living beings could withstand the effects of weightlessness. Both American and Soviet scientists used animals like monkeys, chimps, and dogs to assess how space conditions might impact living organisms.
• Soviet scientists chose dogs to test microgravity’s impact and other spaceflight effects, preferring animals that were obedient, could handle noise, and could endure pressure changes. Laika, a small, calm stray from Moscow, fit these requirements perfectly.
• Originally named Kudryavka, Laika, which means “Barker” in Russian, was selected just a week before the launch for her adaptability and small size. She weighed around 6 kg, earning her the nickname “Muttnik” in the U.S.

Laika’s Experience in Space

• Laika was placed in a pressurized cabin where she could lie down or stand. The spacecraft contained an air regeneration system that provided oxygen and gelatinized food, and Laika was fitted with a harness, a waste collection bag, and monitoring electrodes.
• Sputnik 2 was not designed to return to Earth safely, and Laika was expected to survive for about 10 days. Unfortunately, thermal issues meant she likely only survived a day or two. The intense noises and pressures caused her heart rate and breathing to spike, and after reaching orbit in roughly 103 minutes, rising temperatures in the capsule ultimately led to her death, as revealed by a Soviet doctor in 1993.

Impact on Space Exploration

• Sputnik 2 orbited Earth for five months following Laika’s passing, providing the first data on a living organism’s behaviour in space. Laika’s contribution laid essential groundwork for human space exploration, paving the way for the historic orbit of Yuri Gagarin four years later.
• NASA acknowledged that early animal testing was vital in preventing human casualties, as animals like Laika fulfilled roles that humans could not. Laika’s sacrifice became a foundation for advancing space technology and enabled humanity’s future ventures into space.

 Kerala’s Coastal Zone Management Plan

GS 3: Environment and Biodiversity: Regulating Coastal development activities

Why is it in the news?

• The Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has approved the Coastal Zone Management Plans (CZMPs) for ten coastal districts in Kerala, including Kasaragod, Kannur, Kozhikode, Malappuram, Thrissur, Ernakulam, Kottayam, Alappuzha, Kollam, and Thiruvananthapuram.
• This plan, aligned with the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification of 2019, allows these districts to leverage relaxed regulations for development activities, including construction towards the seaward side.

A Perspective

• Kerala’s coastline spans approximately 590 km, with nine of its fourteen districts located along the Arabian Sea. The 2011 Census reported a population density of 859 persons per square kilometre in Kerala, significantly higher than the national average of 382.
• Coastal areas experience even greater demographic pressure, leading to widespread violations of CRZ rules, including illegal land reclamation and construction.
• The earlier CRZ regulations focused on conserving the coastal ecosystem, which was crucial for the livelihoods of millions in fishing and coastal communities.
• The newly approved CZMP is estimated to benefit around 1 million people by relaxing previous restrictions on constructing new homes and repairing existing structures. A key change in the plan is the reduction of the No Development Zone (NDZ)—the area that must remain untouched—around tidal-influenced water bodies from 100 meters to 50 meters from the High Tide Line in at least 122 local bodies.
• This reclassification includes 37 village panchayats now categorized as CRZ-III A, where the NDZ has been cut to one-fourth of its previous extent. Additionally, 66 village panchayats have been classified under CRZ-2, allowing for the construction of both commercial and residential buildings along the lines of authorized structures.
• Consequently, the total NDZ in CRZ areas of Kerala will shrink from 239.431 square kilometres to 108.397 square kilometres.
• Further, the new regulations pose significant risks to Kerala’s mangrove ecosystems, which play a crucial role in coastal health and serve as breeding grounds for many marine species.
• The 2019 notification has reduced legal protections for government-held mangrove areas to a 50-meter buffer zone, resulting in a decrease in protected mangrove areas from 4,300 hectares to 2,500 hectares in the state.
• Furthermore, the mandatory buffer zone around privately owned mangrove patches have been removed, raising concerns about potential exploitation. While this change may benefit private landowners, it threatens to exacerbate the decline of Kerala’s already dwindling mangrove forests.

Major Challenges Faced by Indian Cities

GS 2: Society: Urbanization and associated challenges

Why is it in the news?

• October 31 marks World Cities Day, a time to reflect on the urban challenges faced globally. The world’s urban population has surged to approximately 4.7 billion, making up 57.5% of the total population, with projections indicating it could double by 2050.
• This year’s theme, “Youth Climate Changemakers: Catalysing Local Action for Urban Sustainability,” emphasizes the role of young people in addressing these challenges.

Global Urban Challenges

• Cities worldwide are facing unprecedented challenges, particularly due to climate change. Despite progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), urban areas are still burdened by poverty, inequality, and environmental degradation.
• These challenges are intensified in the Global South by rapid urbanization, inadequate infrastructure, and limited resources. Many cities in these regions grapple with housing shortages, poor access to clean water and sanitation, and heightened vulnerability to climate-related events.

India’s Urbanization Dynamics

• India’s urbanization pattern is distinct from that of cities in the Global North. In Western nations, urbanization followed industrialization, which created job opportunities for rural labour and was supported by significant economic transfers from colonies.
• Economist Utsa Patnaik has noted that India contributed over $45 trillion to England’s economy during colonial rule. In contrast, urbanization in India is largely driven by economic distress, characterized as “poverty-driven urbanization,” involving both rural-to-urban and urban-to-urban migration.
• The COVID-19 pandemic further highlighted the deficiencies in urban planning as reverse migration exposed infrastructure gaps.

Key Urban Challenges in India

• India currently lacks accurate data on its urban population due to the absence of a 2021 Census. World Bank estimates suggest that around 40% of the population resides in urban areas across approximately 9,000 statutory and census towns.
• Major challenges faced by Indian cities include inadequate spatial planning, climate change impacts, massive migration, increasing inequality, social segregation, and governance limitations.
• Urban planning agencies in India contend with two significant issues:

1) The existing spatial and temporal plans are often outdated and fail to accommodate the rapid population growth.

• Since the 1980s, deindustrialization has resulted in job losses in cities like Ahmedabad, Delhi, Surat, and Mumbai, prompting many displaced workers to migrate to peri-urban areas where overcrowding is prevalent. Presently, 40% of India’s urban population lives in slums.

2) Planning often prioritizes capital growth over the needs of residents, leading to a lack of local ownership and engagement in the planning process.

• Inequality is also on the rise, as exclusive developments cater to affluent populations while millions lack access to basic housing.
• The impact of climate change on Indian cities is profound, with severe pollution, urban flooding, and the “heat island effect” becoming increasingly common. Notably, eight of the ten most polluted cities in India are located in the National Capital Region (NCR) surrounding Delhi.
• Despite the provisions of the 74th Constitutional Amendment, many Indian cities remain governed by undemocratic bodies. Elected representatives often lack control over urban planning, which is frequently outsourced to parastatals and private entities.
• For instance, less than three of the 18 functions outlined in the 12th Schedule have been fully transferred to urban governments, and cities receive a mere 0.5% of the GDP in intergovernmental transfers.
• As we commemorate World Cities Day, these challenges highlight the urgent need for comprehensive national interventions to foster sustainable urban development.

BRICS Summit Boost to India-Iran Ties

GS 2: International Relations: Analysing the 16^th BRICS Summit

Why is it in the news?

• The 16th BRICS Summit, held in Kazan, Russia, from October 22-24, 2024, featured several noteworthy meetings, particularly between India and Iran. These two nations, sharing deep civilizational ties, are eager to revitalize a partnership that has experienced stagnation.
• Given Iran’s current involvement in the Gaza conflict, it is seeking India’s support for de-escalation, while India advocates for a ceasefire. India is increasingly recognized as a mediator capable of facilitating a peaceful resolution due to its trusted relationships with both Israel and Iran.

Historic Bilateral Meeting

• During the landmark meeting between Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Iran’s President Masoud Pezeshkian, the leaders underscored the significant yet untapped potential in their relationship.
• Pezeshkian praised India’s growing global stature and its prospective role in de-escalating the Gaza situation. He acknowledged India’s crucial role in Iran’s accession to major multilateral organizations, such as the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) and BRICS in 2023.
• Key topics discussed included enhancing cooperation in critical areas like the Chabahar port and the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC).

Strategic Importance of Iran

• Iran’s significance to India extends beyond infrastructure projects. The country possesses substantial crude oil and natural gas reserves, estimated at 209 billion barrels of oil and 33,988 billion cubic meters of gas, accounting for 24% of West Asia’s oil reserves and 12% of global reserves as of 2021.
• Despite facing severe economic sanctions and ongoing conflict, Iran’s crude production increased to 3.4 million barrels per day in May 2024, with exports averaging 1.61 million barrels per day in March 2024.

Chabahar Port as a Cornerstone

• The Chabahar port has become a cornerstone of the bilateral relationship, especially after the 10-year operational contract signed by India and Iran on May 13, 2024.
• This port provides India with a secure route to access its Kandla and Mumbai ports, reducing the risk of disruptions in the Persian Gulf.
• Furthermore, the fast-tracking of a 700 km railway link from Chabahar to Zahedan will improve connectivity to Afghanistan, facilitating humanitarian aid and trade.

Energy Cooperation Opportunities

• Energy cooperation represents another significant opportunity for collaboration. Prior to May 2019, Iran supplied nearly 12% of India’s crude oil imports.
• As relations strengthen, resuming oil and gas imports from Iran could become a viable option for addressing India’s energy needs. The long-discussed Iran-Oman-India gas pipeline could also be revisited, particularly after Iran and Oman agreed to develop undersea gas pipelines.

Military Cooperation Potential

• There is also potential for enhanced military cooperation between India and Iran.
• Although a defense cooperation agreement was signed in 2001, it has remained largely inactive due to Western sanctions on Iran.
• In recent years, Iran has developed advanced military technologies, including ballistic and hypersonic missiles and armed drones, which could provide India with a valuable partner in bolstering its defense capabilities.

Counterterrorism and Naval Cooperation

• Joint counterterrorism initiatives and intelligence sharing could help address threats from terrorist groups operating in the region, particularly those based in Pakistan.
• Additionally, enhanced naval cooperation, including port calls and logistical support in the Persian Gulf, could further strengthen ties between the two nations.

Importance of the Partnership

• Both India and Iran recognize the importance of their partnership, especially in light of previous missed opportunities. India’s ability to engage independently with both Iran and Israel, alongside its strategic autonomy demonstrated during the Ukraine crisis, provides a positive framework for strengthening ties with Iran.
• However, past statements, such as a recent comment from Iran’s Supreme Leader comparing the suffering of Indian Muslims to that in Gaza, could jeopardize the relationship. Therefore, it is essential for both nations to prioritize their bilateral ties over isolated remarks.

Conclusion

• As India, under Modi 3.0, seeks to enhance its outreach in West Asia, Iran views India as a key partner in consolidating its diplomatic achievements. The discussions at the BRICS Summit may serve as a catalyst for rejuvenating this important partnership.

Tamil Nadu Prepares for Upcoming Heatwaves

GS 3: Disaster Management: Heatwaves

Why is it in the news?

• The Tamil Nadu government recently declared heatwaves a State-specific disaster, allowing for the provision of relief to those affected, including solatium for families of individuals who succumbed to heat-related causes.
• This initiative will draw from the State Disaster Response Fund and includes launching interim measures to manage the intense heat.

The Heat Crisis

• The World Meteorological Organization has announced that 2023 is the hottest year on record, with an increasing frequency of heatwaves attributed to anthropogenic climate change, as stated in the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2023).
• In India, the population is already grappling with the effects of extreme heat. A comprehensive study published in Environment International highlights the escalating frequency of heatwaves in India over recent decades, including severe episodes in May 1998, April 1999, and notable heatwaves in 2003 and 2010 that caused thousands of deaths.
• The summer of 2024 saw a particularly severe heatwave, with temperatures soaring to 50.5°C in Churu, Rajasthan, and resulting in 219 deaths, including election officials.

Defining a Heatwave

• A heatwave is generally characterized as a prolonged period of unusually hot weather, which may also involve high humidity, but definitions can vary regionally.
• The India Meteorological Department (IMD) defines a heatwave as a maximum temperature of at least 40°C in the plains and 30°C in hilly areas.
• In April and May 2024, many regions in Tamil Nadu recorded temperatures exceeding 40°C, marking the need for focused management of heatwave conditions.

Health Impacts of Heat

• Extreme heat poses significant threats to human health, life, and productivity. A study demonstrates a strong correlation between heatwaves and increased daily mortality, indicating that prolonged and intense heat leads to higher mortality risks.
• Heat-related illnesses, from heat exhaustion to heat stroke, directly impact public health. Moreover, indirect effects, such as exacerbation of pre-existing conditions like renal insufficiency and cardiovascular diseases, further complicate health outcomes.
• Vulnerable populations, including children, the elderly, pregnant women, and those working outdoors in sectors like construction and agriculture, are at heightened risk.
• According to the WHO, heat-related mortality among individuals over 65 rose by approximately 85% between 2000-2004 and 2017-2021.

Understanding Wet Bulb Temperature

• Wet bulb temperature measures the lowest temperature to which a surface can be cooled by evaporating water. It is crucial for assessing heat stress, as exceeding a wet bulb temperature of 35°C for extended periods can lead to hyperthermia, making it impossible for the human body to dissipate heat.
• This measurement is particularly relevant for India, which faces rising humidity levels due to its extensive coastline. Research indicates that heat stress limits are similar across diverse climates today, emphasizing the critical nature of this metric.

Government Action

• Long-term strategies must focus on addressing the root causes of climate change while tackling systemic issues like poverty, unplanned urbanization, and access to healthcare and nutrition.
• However, immediate actions are also necessary during periods of intense heat, as demonstrated by the Tamil Nadu government’s response.
• These actions should include preparing health centres, maternity and child hospitals, stockpiling essential supplies such as oral rehydration salts and medications, providing water and shelter to vulnerable populations, and rescheduling work hours to protect outdoor workers.

New Lancet Report Highlights Alarming Effects of Climate Change

GS 3: Environment and Biodiversity: Effects of climate change

Why is it in the news?

• A recent Lancet Countdown report on Health and Climate Change indicates alarming global health impacts from climate change, noting that 2023 was the hottest year on record.
• The average person experienced 50 more days of dangerous temperatures in 2023 than would have occurred without climate change.
• The report is based on research from 122 experts from UN agencies, including the World Health Organization, and various academic institutions.

Key Findings

• Extreme Drought: 48% of the world’s land area faced extreme drought conditions in 2023.
• Food Insecurity: 151 million more people are experiencing food insecurity due to extreme weather compared to the baseline years of 1981-2010.
• Extreme Rainfall: 60% of land was affected by extreme rainfall, resulting in floods and increased risks of water contamination and infectious diseases.
• Labor Losses: Extreme heat led to a loss of 512 billion potential labour hours, amounting to $835 billion in potential income in 2023.
• Heat Stress: Individuals engaged in outdoor physical activities faced a 27.7% increase in heat stress exposure compared to the average in the 1990s.
• Heat-Related Deaths: Heat-related deaths among individuals over 65 reached a level 167% higher than in the 1990s, with an expected rise of only 65% without climate change.
• Particulate Matter Exposure: A 31% increase in the number of people exposed to dangerously high particulate matter concentrations occurred between 2003-07 and 2018-22.
• Economic Losses: Average annual economic losses from weather-related extreme events rose by 23%, increasing from $227 billion during 2010-14 to 2019-23.
• Hence, this data emphasizes the urgent need for action to mitigate climate change effects on health and the economy.

The Balfour Declaration: 107 Years of Impact on Palestine

GS 2: International Relations: Creating a home for Jewish people in Palestine

Why is it in the news?

• Arthur James Balfour (1848-1930), a significant figure in the British government known as ‘Bloody Balfour’ for his harsh suppression of revolts in Ireland, is chiefly associated with the Balfour Declaration, which promised British support for establishing a Jewish homeland in Palestine.
• This declaration, made on November 2, 1917, continues to have violent repercussions in the region over a century later.

About the Balfour Declaration

• The Balfour Declaration was a letter written by Balfour, then the British foreign secretary, to Lionel Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild of Tring, a key figure in the Anglo-Jewish community.

The carefully crafted text outlines:

1) A declaration of sympathy for Jewish Zionist aspirations, approved by the British Cabinet.

2) Support for establishing a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine, with a commitment from the British government to facilitate this objective.

3) Assurance that actions taken will not prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine.

4) Assurance that the rights and political status of Jews in other countries will remain unaffected.

• This crucial section of the letter, consisting of only 67 words, proposed a monumental change for a million people.
• The Balfour Declaration was issued during World War I (July 28, 1914 – November 11, 1918), at a time when Britain and its Allies were engaged in a challenging conflict, and the Zionist movement was gaining momentum.
• Zionists, facing increasing persecution in Europe, believed that a homeland was essential for the safety of the Jewish community. Theodor Herzl, a leading figure in the Zionist movement, articulated this vision in his 1896 pamphlet “Der Judenstaat” (The Jewish State), advocating for the establishment of a Jewish state.
• Prominent Zionists like Chaim Weizmann and Nahum Sokolow worked diligently to secure British support for their cause. The Balfour Declaration was the outcome of these efforts, with the British agreeing to support the Jewish homeland for a combination of reasons, including genuine sympathy for the Jewish plight and the desire to secure their own strategic interests.
• By backing the Jewish homeland, the British government aimed to garner support from Jewish communities in Russia and the US, hoping they would encourage their governments to maintain support for the war effort. Additionally, controlling Palestine was crucial for safeguarding the Suez Canal and British colonial interests in India.

Contentious Nature of the Balfour Declaration

• The Balfour Declaration is contentious for several reasons. Primarily, it involved a British official promising land that belonged to another people. At that time, Palestine was part of the Ottoman Empire, and Britain had no legal right to make such a promise.
• While the declaration acknowledged the “civil and religious rights” of “non-Jewish communities” in Palestine, it failed to address the political rights of the Arab population already living there.
• Furthermore, while Britain consulted its Allied partners before issuing the declaration, it did not involve any Palestinian leaders.
• This act also contradicted previous promises made in the McMahon–Hussein correspondence (July 1915 to March 1916), where the British had assured the Arabs of an independent state in exchange for their support against the Ottoman Empire during World War I.

Significance of the Balfour Declaration

• The significance of the Balfour Declaration has been debated, with some arguing that it was just one of many factors leading to the creation of Israel. Nonetheless, it is undeniable that British recognition of the Zionist cause lent substantial political legitimacy to the movement.
• Professor Rashid Khalidi of Columbia University noted, “Before November 2, 1917, the Zionist movement was both a national movement in embryo and a colonial enterprise without a fixed metropole, like an orphan searching for a foster parent. When it found one in Great Britain, as symbolized by the Balfour Declaration, the colonization and transformation of Arab Palestine into a Jewish state could begin in earnest.”

India’s Paradox of Stagnant Rural Wages

GS 3: Economy: Rural wages

Why is it in the news?

• Between 2019-20 and 2023-24, India’s economy grew at an annual average of 4.6%, with a stronger 7.8% growth over the past three years. The agricultural sector expanded too, with average growth rates of 4.2% and 3.6% for these periods. Despite this, rural wages have not kept pace with economic growth.
• The Labour Bureau tracks daily wage rates for 25 agricultural and non-agricultural occupations from 600 sample villages across 20 states. Wages are analyzed in nominal terms (current value) and real terms (inflation-adjusted, using the Consumer Price Index for Rural India).
• Over the five years ending in 2023-24, rural wages grew nominally by an average of 5.2% (5.8% for agricultural wages), but real wage growth remained stagnant at -0.4% for rural and 0.2% for agricultural wages.
• For the current fiscal year (April-August), nominal rural wages rose by 5.4%, but just 0.5% in real terms, with agricultural wages up 5.7% nominally and 0.7% in real terms.

The Wage Paradox

• Despite GDP and agricultural growth, rural wages remain stagnant. A contributing factor is the rising Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) among rural women, representing the percentage of people over 15 either working or willing to work.
• Female LFPR nationwide was 24.5% in 2018-19, rising to 41.7% in 2023-24, with rural female LFPR climbing from 26.4% to 47.6% in this period, while male LFPR saw only slight growth.
• The Economic Survey 2023-24 links this rise to government schemes like Ujjwala, Har Ghar Jal, Saubhagya, and Swachh Bharat, which have improved access to clean fuel, electricity, water, and sanitation, freeing up time for rural women.
• With more women available for work, the labour supply has increased, exerting downward pressure on real wages as competition for jobs grows.

Less Labor-Intensive Growth

• Another factor is labour demand. As rural female LFPR increased, so did agriculture’s share in their employment—from 71.1% in 2018-19 to 76.9% in 2023-24.
• More women are joining the labour force but primarily in agriculture rather than manufacturing or services, representing a shift from home to field rather than to factory.
• This may result from India’s capital-intensive growth, where industries increasingly rely on machinery over labour. Sectors needing less labour yield higher profits but limit wage growth, pushing many, especially women, into low-productivity agricultural work.
• This added labour supply in agriculture further depresses wages, with real wages in rural non-agricultural jobs declining, reflecting low demand for labour outside agriculture.

Mitigating Factors

• Capital-intensive, investment-led growth favours sectors like cement, steel, and infrastructure but provides limited support to labour-driven, consumption-led sectors such as FMCGs, appliances, and two-wheelers.
• Government income support programs offer some relief. Various states, including Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Karnataka, and Maharashtra, operate income transfer schemes targeted at women, reaching around a fifth of India’s adult female population with annual distributions totalling approximately Rs 2 lakh crore.
• The Centre’s additional support of Rs 6,000 per year to 11 crore farmer households and its free-grain program for over 81 crore people further supplement rural incomes.
• Programs like Maharashtra’s Ladki Bahin Yojana, which provides Rs 1,500 per month to low-income women, deliver crucial financial support, providing rural female labourers with extra income in times of stagnant wages.

Kodo Millet Poisoning: Suspected Deaths of Elephants in Madhya Pradesh

GS 3: Environment and Biodiversity: Elephant Deaths linked to kodo millet

Why is it in the news?

• Recently, ten wild elephants from a herd of 13 have died at the Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve in Madhya Pradesh. Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (Wildlife) has suggested that the deaths may be connected to “mycotoxins linked to kodo millet.”

What is Kodo Millet?

• Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum), also known as Kodra or Varagu in India, is cultivated in several countries, including India, Pakistan, the Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, and West Africa.
• It is believed to have originated in India, with Madhya Pradesh being one of its largest producers.
• The millet thrives in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in arid and semi-arid zones, and grows well in poor soils.
• It is also cultivated in Gujarat, Karnataka, Chhattisgarh, and parts of Tamil Nadu, and is used in dishes such as idli, dosa, papad, chakli, porridges, and rotis.

Why Farmers Grow Kodo Millet

• Kodo millet is a staple food for many tribal and economically disadvantaged communities in India. It is recognized as a hardy, drought-resistant crop with a high yield and excellent storage properties.
• Additionally, it is rich in vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, gluten-free, easy to digest, and beneficial for health due to its dietary fibre, which positively impacts glucose absorption and cholesterol levels.

Earliest Cases of Kodo Millet Poisoning

• The first documented case of kodo millet poisoning occurred in 1922 in the Indian Medical Gazette, involving four individuals who displayed acute poisoning symptoms after consuming bread made from kodo flour. In the same month, a dog also fell ill from eating the same bread.
• By 1983, the first recorded elephant deaths due to kodo millet consumption were documented, and by 1985, researchers identified cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), a mycotoxin, as the cause of “kodua poisoning.”

Why Kodo Millet Becomes Toxic

• Kodo millet can become toxic under certain environmental conditions, particularly during spring and summer rains, which promote fungal contamination. The millet is susceptible to infections from the ergot fungus that grows on its ear heads.
• CPA is the primary mycotoxin associated with kodo poisoning, especially when grains are exposed to rain during maturing and harvesting, leading to local terms like ‘Matawna Kodoo’ or ‘Matona Kodo.’
• Mycotoxins in infected grains are highly stable and resistant to heat, making contaminated food or feed dangerous.

Effects of Toxic Grain on Animals

• Kodo poisoning primarily affects the nervous and cardiovascular systems, causing symptoms such as vomiting, dizziness, unconsciousness, rapid pulse, cold extremities, and tremors.
• CPA toxicity can lead to liver dysfunction, myocardial lesions, and impaired heart function due to disrupted calcium signalling in cardiac cells. In animals, CPA may also cause gastrointestinal issues and increase the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to inflammation and gastrointestinal damage.
• Similar symptoms were observed in the affected elephants, with toxicity tests on mice showing signs of depression and loss of mobility.

Solutions to Kodo Millet Toxicity

• Researchers recommend using biocontrol agents—organisms that inhibit harmful ones—to address kodo millet toxicity. Specific microbes can reduce fungal growth and mycotoxin production. Effective strategies include inoculating fields with competitive, non-toxic fungal strains.
• However, these methods must be complemented by good agricultural practices and proper post-harvest management, such as sorting and storing grains in airtight containers.
• Harvested heaps should be protected from rain, and traditional practices like moistening plants before threshing should be avoided. Removing infected grains can help limit disease spread.

Recent Cases of Kodo Millet Poisoning

• In 2022, a wild elephant in Madhya Pradesh died from consuming toxic kodo millet. Fortunately, there have been no reported human fatalities from kodo poisoning, as affected individuals often recover with stomach washing, stimulants, or by consuming hot tea or milk, with symptoms lasting one to three days.
• For the sick elephants, veterinarians administered a “toxicity therapy treatment,” which included liver tonics, multivitamins, and general antidotes intravenously.

Detection of Kodo Millet Fungal Infections for Human Consumption

• According to experts, kodo millet toxicity is not easily detected visually. The plant may appear fresh but could harbour internal fungal toxicity due to moisture and other factors.
• Detecting mycotoxins, which are often present in trace amounts, requires specific analytical methods. Common techniques include thin-layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography (GC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC/MS).
• Due to the time-intensive nature of these methods, on-site, rapid, and cost-effective detection techniques like enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), lateral flow assays (LFAs), and biosensors are becoming popular for quick mycotoxin detection.