1) Green Credit Programme (GCP)

GS 3: Environment and Biodiversity: Addressing Business Responsibility and Sustainability

Why is it in the news?

• The Green Credit Programme (GCP), launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change in 2023, faced legal scrutiny from the Ministry of Law and Justice before its rollout due to concerns over its business model.
• The programme aims to encourage voluntary participation in activities like tree plantations and water conservation in exchange for tradable green credits. A pilot project focusing on tree plantations and eco-restoration is currently underway.

What is the Green Credit Programme?

• PM Narendra Modi and UAE President Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan officially unveiled the GCP on December 1, 2023, during the United Nations Climate Conference in Dubai. The scheme is designed to incentivize “pro-planet” actions under the Centre’s Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Sustainable Environment).
• The Union Environment Ministry notified the Green Credit Rules in October 2023, outlining its objectives and implementation framework. The programme seeks voluntary participation from individuals, companies, industries, and other entities in seven environmental activities, including tree plantations, waste management, and water conservation.
• Participants earn green credits, which can be traded on a domestic market to buyers seeking to meet sustainability targets or legal obligations. These credits can also be used for compensatory afforestation when forest land is diverted for development projects, as per a February 2024 notification.
• Additionally, listed companies can use green credits for environmental disclosures under SEBI’s Business Responsibility and Sustainability framework.

Calculation of Green Credits

• The scheme’s pilot phase initially focused on tree plantations and later expanded to eco-restoration activities such as planting shrubs, herbs, and grasses, along with rainwater harvesting and soil moisture conservation. The Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), Dehradun, serves as the nodal administrator.
• Plantations are carried out on degraded land, including open forests, scrublands, wastelands, and catchment areas, with a minimum size of five hectares. State and Union Territory forest departments identify these land parcels and allocate them to registered participants. Upon application approval and payment of a fee, the forest departments undertake and maintain the plantations, completing them within two years.
• Each fully grown tree in these designated areas is counted as one green credit, provided the plantation maintains a minimum density of 1,100 trees per hectare, subject to local climatic conditions. Certification of completion is required from the forest department.
• As of March 4, 2024, 2,364 land parcels covering 54,669.46 hectares had been registered across 17 states. A total of 384 entities, including 41 public-sector undertakings, have registered for participation.

Criticism of the Green Credit Programme

• The GCP has faced criticism for potentially encouraging forest diversion for industrial use. The scheme allows tradable credits to be used for compensatory afforestation compliance, which some argue undermines the principle of land-for-land compensation. Experts have also raised concerns about promoting plantations on degraded lands, open forests, and scrublands, which provide important ecological services.
• In early 2024, the Supreme Court heard an intervention application related to the GCP in an ongoing case challenging amendments to the Forest Conservation Act. The plea highlighted concerns over the survival of plantations under the scheme, prompting the court to seek the Environment Ministry’s response.
• Under India’s forest conservation law, the Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam, 2023, compensatory afforestation requires using non-forest land equivalent to the diverted forest land. If non-forest land is unavailable, twice the size of degraded forest land must be used.
• However, the GCP mandates plantations on degraded forest land while also allowing credits to be traded for compliance with compensatory afforestation. This effectively replaces older forests with new plantations instead of increasing forest cover through non-forest land, as required by law.

2) The 2025 Myanmar Earthquake

GS 1: Geography: Strengthening Earthquake Preparedness

Why is it in the news?

• On March 28, 2025, a powerful earthquake of magnitude 7.7 struck central Myanmar, about 20 km from Mandalay. Located near the Sagaing fault, one of the most seismically active regions, the quake was followed by multiple aftershocks, including a 6.4-magnitude tremor just 11 minutes later.
• The devastation left thousands dead and caused widespread damage to homes and infrastructure, particularly in Mandalay, Myanmar’s second-largest city.

Impact on Myanmar and Neighbouring Regions

• The earthquake severely impacted Myanmar, with significant destruction in the southern Sagaing fault region, where thick alluvial deposits amplified seismic energy. Mandalay, home to 1.5 million people, saw extensive damage to buildings, bridges, pagodas, and mosques.
• The event also affected Bangkok, Thailand—1,000 km away—where a high-rise under construction collapsed, and seismic waves caused water to overflow from rooftop swimming pools. However, Bangkok’s overall damage was minimal.
• Despite its proximity, China’s Yunnan Province avoided major destruction due to the fault’s geological characteristics. Similarly, the eastern parts of India remained largely unaffected as the earthquake’s energy dispersed in a north-south direction along the fault, reducing its impact in the westward direction.

History of Earthquakes Along the Sagaing Fault

• Myanmar’s Sagaing fault has a long history of seismic activity. Since 1930, six major earthquakes above magnitude 7 have occurred in central Myanmar.
• Historical records indicate that in 1839, the Ava earthquake killed over 500 people, and in 1927, a strong earthquake was felt north of Yangon. The 1946 earthquake north of Mandalay had a magnitude similar to the 2025 event.
• The ancient city of Bagan, home to numerous religious monuments, has also suffered frequent earthquakes, the most recent occurring in 2016.

Why is Southeast Asia Prone to Earthquakes?

• South Asia, including Myanmar, is highly earthquake-prone due to its location near major tectonic features such as the Himalayas, the Shillong Plateau, the Indo-Burman Range, and the Andaman-Nicobar subduction zone.
• These regions are shaped by the ongoing collision of the Indian and Eurasian Plates, a process that began 40 million years ago. This plate interaction has generated some of history’s largest earthquakes, including the 9.2-magnitude event and transcontinental tsunami of 2004.

The Geodynamics of the Sagaing Fault

• The Sagaing fault serves as a crucial tectonic boundary between the Central Myanmar Lowlands and the Indo-Burman Range. It is classified as a ridge-trench transform fault and extends 1,400 km from the Andaman Sea in the south to the eastern Himalayas in the north. This fault accommodates about 50-55% of the regional plate motion, moving at a rate of 15-25 mm per year.
• Unlike thrust faults that generate deep earthquakes, the Sagaing fault produces shallower quakes at depths of 10-15 km, making them more destructive. Its movement is primarily horizontal, similar to California’s San Andreas Fault.

Lessons for India

• The Myanmar earthquake underscores the need for robust earthquake preparedness in India. As South Asia’s most earthquake-prone country, India must adopt scientifically tested safety measures, including earthquake-resistant infrastructure and public awareness programs.
• Past seismic events along the Sagaing fault highlight the necessity of continuous monitoring and mitigation strategies to reduce potential damage and loss of life in future earthquakes.
• The 2025 Mandalay earthquake serves as a stark reminder of the destructive power of seismic activity and the urgent need for regional cooperation in disaster preparedness and response.

3) ChaSTE: Chandrayaan-3’s Breakthrough in Lunar Temperature Measurement

GS 3: Science and Technology: Measuring the Moon’s Temperature

Why is it in the news?

• As the Vikram lander of Chandrayaan-3 touched down on the moon on August 23, 2023, a thermal probe embedded in its panels activated.
• This probe, part of the Chandra’s Surface Thermophysical Experiment (ChaSTE), slowly extended its arms and began penetrating the lunar soil. Once it reached its intended depth, it locked into place, marking a significant achievement in lunar exploration.

First In-Situ Temperature Measurement at the Moon’s South Pole

• ChaSTE became the first instrument to measure in-situ temperatures near the moon’s south pole, providing crucial data that confirmed water ice is more prevalent on the moon than previously expected.
• This experiment also marked the first successful deployment of a thermal probe on a celestial body after two previous missions had failed.

Design and Functionality of ChaSTE

• The ChaSTE probe is equipped with 10 temperature sensors, spaced about 1 cm apart along its length, near the tip. Unlike previous missions that used hammering mechanisms, ChaSTE employed a rotation-based deployment system.
• As its motor rotated, the probe needle pushed into the lunar soil until its tip made contact with the surface. Scientists monitored temperature changes to confirm surface contact, while increasing soil resistance indicated the probe’s depth.
• ChaSTE successfully reached a depth of 10 cm and continued collecting data until September 2, 2023.

Previous Attempts: Philae and InSight Missions

• Before ChaSTE, two other missions attempted similar experiments but encountered challenges. On November 12, 2014, the European Space Agency’s Philae lander, part of the Rosetta mission, landed on comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko.
• However, it bounced twice upon landing, preventing scientists from deploying its Multi-Purpose Sensors for Surface and Subsurface Science (MUPUS) instrument to measure temperature. Philae ended up in an unfavourable position on an icy rock 500 million km away.
• NASA’s InSight mission, which landed on Mars on November 26, 2018, carried a similar temperature-sensing instrument called the Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package (HP3). This device, nicknamed “The Mole,” was designed to penetrate 5 meters into the Martian surface.
• However, due to low friction between the probe and the sand, it struggled to burrow deeper than a few centimetres. After over a year of effort, the 35-cm Mole finally descended into the Martian sand, but it failed to collect temperature data as its sensors were attached to a tether that didn’t deploy as planned.

The Success of ChaSTE’s Rotation-Based Mechanism

• According to principal investigator of ChaSTE from the Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad, the key difference between ChaSTE and previous attempts was its deployment mechanism.
• While both MUPUS and HP3 relied on hammering devices, ChaSTE’s probe was pushed into the soil using a rotating device, ensuring a successful penetration and data collection. This innovation played a crucial role in its success, advancing scientific understanding of lunar surface conditions.
• Bottom of Form

4) India’s Air Pollution Control Efforts and Their Climate Impact

GS 3: Environment and Biodiversity: Greenhouse Gases vs. Aerosols

Context

• Regions that significantly reduced air pollution in the late 20th century experienced accelerated warming trends. In contrast, highly populated urban areas with lower human development indices have witnessed relatively lower warming levels due to the masking effect of aerosols.
• A study warns that rapidly reducing aerosols without cutting greenhouse gas emissions could expose vulnerable populations to sudden temperature spikes and extreme heat, particularly in polluted regions like India.

An Analysis

• While greenhouse gases trap heat and intensify global warming, aerosols—such as sulphates and nitrates—scatter solar radiation, exerting a cooling effect. Unlike greenhouse gases, which remain in the atmosphere for centuries and affect global temperatures, aerosols have a much shorter lifespan, persisting for only a few days to weeks.
• The immediate consequence of removing aerosols from the atmosphere is an increase in warming, highlighting the complexity of balancing pollution control with climate mitigation efforts.

Thermal Power and Aerosol Emissions

• India relies heavily on coal-based thermal power plants, which generate around 70% of the country’s electricity. These plants release sulphur dioxide, which, when oxidized, forms highly reflective sulphate aerosols that contribute 50-60% of India’s overall aerosol composition.
• To reduce air pollution, thermal plants are now required to filter out sulphur dioxide before releasing flue gas. While this improves air quality, it also diminishes the cooling effect of aerosols, potentially accelerating warming.

The Invisible Offset: Aerosols Masking Warming

• According to experts, if aerosols did not offset warming, India would experience much higher temperatures. Between 1906 and 2005, India’s actual warming was 0.54°C, whereas greenhouse gas emissions alone would have led to approximately 2°C of warming. The cooling effect, mainly attributed to aerosols, offset about 1.5°C of warming.
• The Ministry of Earth Sciences’ Climate Assessment Report (2020) also found that India’s temperature rose by 0.7°C from 1901 to 2018, largely due to greenhouse gases, with aerosols and land-use changes partially mitigating the rise.

Aerosols and Monsoon Rainfall

• Aerosols influence rainfall patterns in complex ways. Their overall cooling effect—estimated at 0.6°C globally during the industrial era—is unevenly distributed, with 0.9°C cooling in the Northern Hemisphere and 0.3°C in the Southern Hemisphere. This discrepancy has slightly reduced Indian monsoon rainfall.
• Furthermore, studies show that changes in aerosol levels in one region can affect climate conditions in distant locations. For example, a Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences study (May 2024) found that China’s reduction in aerosols intensified heatwaves along North America’s west coast.
• Similarly, increased aerosol levels over India could disrupt the hydrological cycle and decrease monsoon rainfall, making this an active area of global research.

The Challenge of Net-Zero and Adaptation Policies

• Both aerosol pollution and greenhouse gas-induced climate change stem from large-scale industrial activities. While aerosols worsen air quality and respiratory health, greenhouse gas emissions exacerbate extreme heat events, creating a dual threat to vulnerable populations. The study emphasizes that reducing both pollutants requires policies that protect at-risk communities from short-term warming effects.
• Achieving net-zero carbon emissions alone will not solve the issue. Policymakers must implement long-term adaptation strategies, particularly for the Indo-Gangetic plains, which experience the highest aerosol loading.
• However, predicting the exact impact of aerosol reduction on specific regions remains difficult due to its highly localized nature.

Strengthening Heat Action Plans

• As air quality improves, cities could face intensified heat stress. A report by the Sustainable Futures Collaborative found that heat action plans in nine major cities—including Delhi, Mumbai, and Bengaluru—lacked long-term strategies and targeted interventions.
• Experts emphasize the need for better heat management policies to mitigate potential temperature spikes resulting from cleaner air.

Balancing Air Quality and Climate Effects

• While reducing air pollution may expose greenhouse gas-induced warming, it could also enhance monsoon rainfall. Policymakers must weigh these trade-offs while formulating climate strategies.
• Despite potential warming concerns, experts agree that the immediate health benefits of air pollution control—such as lower respiratory illnesses and improved public health—far outweigh any short-term adverse climate effects.

5) Fiscal Health Index 2025

GS 3: Economy: Mapping India’s State-Level Economic Resilience

Why is it in the news?

• The Fiscal Health Index (FHI) initiative by NITI Aayog aims to assess the fiscal health of Indian states through a comprehensive analysis. Covering eighteen major states, the FHI evaluates their contributions to India’s GDP, demography, public expenditure, revenues, and overall fiscal stability.
• Odisha leads the Index, followed by Chhattisgarh, Goa, Jharkhand, and Gujarat. Given that states account for nearly two-thirds of public spending and one-third of total revenue, their fiscal performance is crucial for national economic stability.
• The composite Fiscal Health Index, developed using data from the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) for the Financial Year 2022-23, enables state-wise comparisons and benchmarking of best practices.

Objectives of the Fiscal Health Index

• The FHI aims to provide a standardized assessment of fiscal health across states, identifying strengths and areas of concern in their fiscal management.
• It promotes transparency, accountability, and prudent fiscal management through empirical evaluations. Additionally, it assists policymakers in making informed decisions to enhance fiscal sustainability and resilience.

Key Indicators

The Fiscal Health Index 2025 assesses states using five broad categories:

• Tax Buoyancy: Tax buoyancy is a ratio of change in tax revenue in relation to change in gross state domestic product or GSDP of a state. It measures how responsive a taxation policy is to growth in economic activities.
• Debt-to-GSDP Ratio: The debt-to-GDP ratio is a metric that compares a state’s total public debt to its gross state domestic product (GSDP), indicating its ability to repay its debts, and is often expressed as a percentage.
• Debt Management: The index examines states’ debt-to-GSDP ratios, interest payment burdens, and overall debt sustainability.
• Fiscal Deficit Management: This measures fiscal deficit as a percentage of GSDP and adherence to statutory limits.
• Overall Fiscal Sustainability: A composite assessment of revenue, expenditure, deficit, and debt indicators determines the long-term fiscal health of states.

Key Findings

• Odisha ranks highest in the Fiscal Health Index with a score of 67.8, excelling in the Debt Index (99.0) and Debt Sustainability (64.0). It maintains a low fiscal deficit, a robust debt profile, and a high Capital Outlay-to-GSDP ratio.
• Chhattisgarh (55.2) and Goa (53.6) follow, with strengths in debt management and revenue mobilization, respectively.
• Odisha, Jharkhand, Goa, and Chhattisgarh effectively mobilize non-tax revenue, averaging 21% of total revenue. Odisha benefits from mining premiums, while Chhattisgarh gains from coal block auctions.
• In contrast, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, and Kerala face fiscal distress due to poor debt sustainability, low expenditure quality, and high fiscal deficits.
• States like Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Goa, Karnataka, and Uttar Pradesh allocate around 27% of their developmental expenditure to capital expenditure, while West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, and Rajasthan allocate only 10%.
• While top-performing states excel in debt sustainability, West Bengal and Punjab struggle with rising debt-to-GSDP ratios, raising concerns about long-term debt viability.

Sustainability of Debt Portfolios

• The sustainability of debt portfolios reflects a state’s ability to meet its debt obligations without defaulting or requiring extraordinary financial assistance. Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Goa lead in debt sustainability and revenue mobilization.
• Odisha, Jharkhand, Goa, and Chhattisgarh efficiently mobilize non-tax revenue, contributing 21% of total revenue. The Debt Index includes the Interest Payments to Revenue Receipts (IP/RR) ratio, indicating the share of revenue receipts used for servicing outstanding debt.
• On the other hand, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, and Kerala continue to face fiscal challenges, including high deficits and poor debt sustainability.
• Capital expenditure allocation is significantly higher (27%) in Odisha, Goa, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, and Uttar Pradesh, whereas states like West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, and Rajasthan allocate only 10%.
• The growing debt burden in West Bengal and Punjab remains a significant concern, with their debt-to-GSDP ratios on an upward trajectory.

Conclusion

• The Fiscal Health Index 2025 serves as a crucial tool for assessing state-level fiscal performance, emphasizing the importance of revenue generation, efficient expenditure management, debt control, and fiscal deficit targets.
• The report has been shared with all States and Union Territories to help them evaluate their fiscal performance across key indicators. States are encouraged to adopt sustainable fiscal policies and implement prudent financial management practices to strengthen their long-term economic resilience.

6) 50th Anniversary of the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)

GS 2: International Relations: Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)

Why is it in the news?

• On March 26, 2025, the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) completed 50 years since it came into effect. It is the first global disarmament treaty to prohibit an entire category of weapons of mass destruction (WMD).

Understanding the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)

• The BWC, also known as the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), is an international treaty aimed at eliminating biological and toxin weapons. It strictly bans their development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling, and use.

History and Adoption

• Negotiated in Geneva between 1969 and 1971.
• The United States and the Soviet Union proposed initial drafts in August 1971.
• Opened for signature on April 10, 1972, in London, Moscow, and Washington, D.C.
• Officially came into force on March 26, 1975, after receiving the required ratifications.

Key Provisions of the BWC

• Article I: Prohibits the development, production, stockpiling, and use of biological weapons.
• Article II: Mandates the destruction or conversion of biological agents, toxins, and weapons for peaceful use before joining.
• Article III: Bans the transfer of biological weapons and assistance in their acquisition.
• Article VI: Allows states to report treaty violations to the UN Security Council.
• Article X: Encourages the exchange of biological materials and technology for peaceful purposes.

Structure and Membership

• Depositaries: The United States, the United Kingdom, and the Russian Federation are the depositary governments.
• Current Status: As of February 2025, 188 countries have ratified the treaty, 4 have signed but not ratified, and 9 have neither signed nor ratified.
• Review Mechanism: Conferences are held every five years to review implementation and enhance transparency.

India’s Commitment to the BWC

• India is a signatory to the BWC and remains committed to its objectives.
• It has implemented national laws to prevent the development or use of biological weapons and ensure treaty compliance.

7) 90 Years of RBI: Evolution of India’s Central Bank and Monetary Policy

GS 3: Economy: RBI’s role in shaping country’s landscape

Why is it in the news?

• In 2025, the first monetary policy under RBI Governor Sanjay Malhotra coincides with 90 years since the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) introduced its inaugural monetary policy in 1935. .

RBI’s First Monetary Policy (1935)

• On July 3, 1935, the RBI set the bank rate at 3.5%, aligning with the rate of the Imperial Bank of India. Soon after, on July 5, 1935, the Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) was established at 5% for demand liabilities and 2% for time liabilities. These early measures laid the groundwork for India’s monetary policy framework.

Evolution of Monetary Policy

Introduction of the Bank Rate

• The bank rate, introduced in 1935, became a crucial tool for controlling credit and liquidity. The RBI Act of 1934 mandated its use for purchasing or re-discounting commercial paper, making it an essential component of India’s interest rate structure.
• Initially set at 3.5%, the bank rate influenced lending rates and the broader financial system.

Role of Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR)

• The CRR was introduced to ensure financial stability by requiring banks to maintain a portion of their deposits as reserves. Drawing inspiration from the U.S. Federal Reserve Act, this measure played a significant role in preventing banking failures.
• Initially, the CRR was fixed at 5% for demand liabilities and 2% for time liabilities, with later adjustments to suit economic conditions.

Exchange Rate Management in 1935

• At the time of its establishment, the RBI managed India’s exchange rate, setting 1 Indian rupee equivalent to 1 shilling and 6 pence. This decision led to disagreements between nationalist leaders and British authorities.
• While Indian nationalists advocated for a lower exchange rate to promote exports, British officials preferred a higher rate to facilitate cheaper imports.

Government-RBI Conflicts

• In 1935, when the RBI attempted to lower the bank rate, the British government opposed the move, fearing a depreciation of the Indian rupee. This disagreement resulted in a significant conflict, culminating in the resignation of Sir Osborne Smith, the first RBI Governor.
• The episode underscored the ongoing struggle between the RBI’s monetary independence and governmental economic policies.

Overview of the Reserve Bank of India

Establishment and Early Years

• The RBI was founded on April 1, 1935, under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934, following recommendations from the Hilton Young Commission. Initially headquartered in Kolkata, it relocated permanently to Mumbai in 1937.
• The institution began as a privately owned entity before being fully nationalized in 1949.

Leadership and Governance

• Sir Osborne Arkell Smith, an Australian, was appointed as the RBI’s first Governor. He was later succeeded by Sir C.D. Deshmukh, who became the first Indian to hold the position. Their leadership set the foundation for the RBI’s role as India’s monetary authority.

Key Functions of the RBI

Monetary Policy and Inflation Control

• The RBI regulates the supply of money to stabilize exchange rates, control inflation, and maintain a healthy balance of payments. By adjusting interest rates and liquidity, it ensures economic stability.

Currency Issuance and Counterfeit Prevention

• As the sole issuer of currency in India, the RBI plays a crucial role in maintaining the integrity of the financial system, including efforts to prevent the circulation of counterfeit notes.

Banker to the Government

• The RBI serves as the banker to both the central and state governments, offering financial advisory services and short-term credit. It plays a vital role in managing public debt and government transactions.

Lender of Last Resort

• During financial crises, the RBI provides emergency liquidity support to banks and financial institutions, ensuring stability in the banking sector.

Management of Foreign Exchange Reserves

• The RBI oversees India’s foreign exchange reserves and implements the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) of 1999 to regulate currency flows and maintain external sector stability.

Payment and Settlement Oversight

• To ensure efficiency and security, the RBI supervises payment and settlement systems across the country, facilitating smooth financial transactions.

Credit Regulation and Financial Development

• The RBI promotes credit availability to key economic sectors and plays a developmental role by strengthening financial infrastructure and supporting economic growth.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s Contribution to RBI’s Formation

• B.R. Ambedkar played a significant role in shaping India’s monetary policy framework.
• During discussions with the Hilton Young Commission in 1926, he presented his recommendations based on his book, The Problem of the Rupee – Its Origin and Its Solution. His insights helped lay the foundation for the establishment of the RBI on April 1, 1935.

8) Exercise Tiger Triumph: Advancing India-U.S. Defence Cooperation

GS 3: Defence: Enhancing defence mechanisms

Why is it in the news?

• The fourth edition of Exercise Tiger Triumph, a bilateral tri-service Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) drill, to be conducted from 1^st to 13 April 2025 on India’s Eastern Seaboard, covering Visakhapatnam and Kakinada.
• This joint exercise aims to enhance disaster response mechanisms and operational synergy between Indian and U.S. forces.

Genesis and Development of Tiger Triumph

• Exercise Tiger Triumph was first introduced by then U.S. President Donald Trump during the Howdy Modi event in Houston on September 22, 2019.
• The maiden edition, held from November 13 to 21, 2019, saw the participation of 1,200 Indian personnel and 500 U.S. military members, with representation from the Indian Army, Navy, Air Force, and U.S. Marine Corps Forces, Pacific.

The exercise is structured into two major phases:

• Harbour Phase (Visakhapatnam): Involves training sessions, professional exchanges, and cultural engagements.
• Sea Phase (Kakinada): Features practical HADR drills, including establishing field hospitals and conducting evacuation operations.

Over the years, the exercise has evolved with improved coordination:

• 2022 Edition: Focused on disaster response synchronization, using tabletop simulations for enhanced readiness.
• 2024 Edition: Aimed at refining Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) and introduced a battalion group from the Indian Army for a more structured response.

Core Objectives and Strategic Significance

• Enhancing Operational Coordination: The exercise bolsters India-U.S. military collaboration, ensuring swift and coordinated disaster response efforts.
• Disaster Preparedness and Humanitarian Aid: By simulating responses to natural calamities like super-cyclones, the exercise improves diplomatic, logistical, and operational preparedness for large-scale emergencies.
• Deepening India-U.S. Strategic Relations: Through joint operations and knowledge-sharing, Tiger Triumph reinforces defence ties, promoting mutual trust, tactical expertise, and crisis management capabilities.