1) India’s Textile Industry: Production Powerhouse but Export Struggles Persist

GS 3: Economy: Challenges for textile industry

Why is it in the news?

• India’s textile industry is one of the largest globally, covering the entire value chain from cotton cultivation to high-end apparel manufacturing. Despite its scale, India lags behind China, Vietnam, and Bangladesh in textile exports due to fragmented supply chains, higher production costs, and complex regulations.
• These countries benefit from vertically integrated operations, simplified procedures, and free trade agreements, making their exports more competitive.

Fibre to Fabric

• India is the world’s second-largest cotton producer, contributing 24% to global production and engaging around 60 lakh farmers, mainly in Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Telangana. The cotton textile value chain—from fibre processing and yarn spinning to fabric weaving and garment stitching—employs over 4.5 crore people.
• While cotton dominates fibre consumption, India is also the second-largest producer of man-made fibres (MMF). Reliance Industries leads in polyester production, while Aditya Birla’s Grasim Industries is the sole domestic producer of viscose fibre.
• Despite being a production leader, India’s MMF consumption remains low at 3.1 kg per capita, compared to China’s 12 kg and North America’s 22.5 kg. Overall fibre consumption, including natural and synthetic fibres, stands at 5.5 kg per capita, far below the global average of 11.2 kg.
• About 80% of India’s textile production occurs in MSME clusters, each specialising in specific products. Key hubs include Bhiwandi for fabric production, Tiruppur for t-shirts and undergarments, Surat for polyester and nylon, and Ludhiana for woollen garments.

Growth and Export Challenges

• India’s textile industry contributes 13% to industrial production, 12% to exports, and 2% to GDP. However, the sector has seen sluggish growth in recent years. Between FY15 and FY19, the textile sector grew at a CAGR of 0.4%, while apparel grew at 7.7%.
• Post-Covid, between FY20 and FY24, the textile sector contracted by 1.8% annually and the apparel sector by 8.2%. MSME clusters, especially in Tamil Nadu, have been severely affected.
• While India maintains a trade surplus in textiles, export growth has remained stagnant. In FY24, exports stood at $34.1 billion, slightly above $33.4 billion in FY20. Nearly half of these exports went to the US and EU, catering to brands like JCPenney, Gap, and Decathlon.
• The garment sector exported goods worth $14.5 billion in FY24, down from $15.5 billion in FY20. Key players include Shahi Exports, Gokaldas Exports, and PDS Ltd.
• In contrast, cotton textiles, including home products like bedsheets and towels, saw higher exports at $12.3 billion in FY24, up from $10.2 billion in FY20. Leading companies in this segment include Welspun Living and Trident Ltd.

Low Export Competitiveness

• India struggles to compete with China, Vietnam, and Bangladesh due to higher production costs. In 2023, Vietnam exported apparel worth $40 billion. These countries benefit from vertically integrated supply chains, ensuring lower production costs and consistent quality.
• India’s fragmented cotton supply chain, spread across multiple states, increases logistical expenses and limits large-scale production.
• The Economic Survey 2024-25 highlighted that the lack of integration and a complex value chain drive up costs for Indian exporters. Competitor nations also benefit from flexible labour laws, free trade agreements, and simplified customs procedures.
• In contrast, Indian exporters face cumbersome regulations, requiring detailed documentation for every fabric piece, button, and zipper used.
• High raw material costs further erode India’s competitiveness in the MMF sector. Quality control orders (QCOs) restrict polyester and viscose imports, forcing domestic yarn makers to rely on costlier local alternatives.
• In January 2024, polyester fibre in India was 33-36% costlier than in China, while viscose fibre was 14-16% more expensive, according to the Confederation of Indian Textile Industry (CITI).

Sustainability: A Rising Challenge

• Sustainability is becoming a critical challenge for India’s textile industry as global markets tighten compliance norms. These include higher renewable energy use, water recycling, and stricter sourcing and traceability standards. PM Narendra Modi emphasised the need for resource efficiency and waste minimisation in the textile industry.
• The Economic Survey noted that sustainability requirements will increase costs, especially for small enterprises. The European Union has implemented 16 legislations across the fashion value chain between 2021 and 2024.
• Since the EU accounts for nearly 20% of India’s textile exports, this shift poses a significant challenge for MSMEs adapting to eco-friendly production methods.
• India’s textile recycling market is projected to reach $400 million, while the global recycled textile market is expected to touch $7.5 billion. Modi highlighted the growing issue of “fast fashion waste,” with millions of garments discarded monthly due to changing trends. Fashion waste is expected to reach 148 million tonnes by 2030, yet less than a quarter of textile waste is currently recycled.
• Addressing these challenges will require India to modernise its supply chains, streamline regulations, adopt sustainable practices, and reduce production costs to compete effectively in global markets.

2) Surveillance Capitalism: The Exploitation of Personal Data and Erosion of Autonomy

GS 3: Economy: Reshaping Capitalism

Why is it in the news?

• Surveillance capitalism is an economic system where personal data is collected, analyzed, and sold by tech companies to predict and manipulate human behaviour. It has become a core aspect of the digital economy, reshaping capitalism by transforming human experience into a commodity for profit.
• This system is often compared to past exploitative models like colonialism and industrial capitalism, as it thrives on extracting personal information for economic gain.

The Concept of Surveillance Capitalism

• Unlike traditional capitalism, which focuses on goods and services, surveillance capitalism relies on mining human experiences to generate data. This data is then sold to advertisers, political campaigns, and other entities.
• Tech giants like Google, Meta, and Amazon have turned the internet into a vast surveillance network, tracking every click, search, purchase, and even offline movements.
• This system operates through instrumentarian power, where control is exerted by subtly shaping behaviour rather than using force. Predictive analytics, recommendation algorithms, and targeted content nudge individuals toward actions that benefit corporations.
• Similarly, the concept of social physics shows how analyzing large datasets can reveal behavioural patterns, making it easier for corporations and policymakers to predict and influence human behaviour. This transforms individuals into predictable economic actors, reinforcing corporate control over consumer choices.

How It Differs from Traditional Capitalism

• Surveillance capitalism differs from industrial capitalism in its approach to profit generation. While industrial capitalism relied on labour and material production, surveillance capitalism profits from extracting behavioural data. Instead of producing physical goods, companies commodify human experiences, turning users into both consumers and sources of data.
• Industrial capitalism focused on productivity, efficiency, and labour control. In contrast, surveillance capitalism controls user behaviour through algorithms designed to maximize engagement and guide choices that benefit tech companies.
• This constant data collection undermines autonomy, as every interaction becomes an opportunity for monetization.

Collaboration with State Surveillance

• One of the most concerning aspects of surveillance capitalism is its integration with state surveillance. Governments increasingly depend on private tech companies for intelligence gathering, policing, and social control. Instead of building independent surveillance systems, states access privately collected data through legal agreements or covert methods.
• This collaboration aligns corporate profit motives with state security interests, often compromising individual privacy and civil liberties. Since much of this surveillance happens within private corporations, it lacks public accountability.
• Deregulation and corporate autonomy further enable this model, allowing both states and corporations to benefit from mass surveillance while individuals face increasing risks of exploitation.

Erosion of Autonomy

• The widespread data collection under surveillance capitalism has created a fragile and interconnected digital ecosystem. Disruptions in one area can trigger cascading failures across multiple sectors. This fragility becomes evident during major data breaches and algorithmic failures, which can lead to financial instability and misinformation crises.
• The Cambridge Analytica scandal is a prime example. In 2014, Facebook user data was harvested without consent to target U.S. voters with personalized political advertisements. This incident highlighted how personal data can be weaponized to influence democratic processes, raising concerns about the unchecked power of surveillance capitalism.
• Moreover, continuous data monitoring and predictive analytics erode personal autonomy. Every online action is tracked, analyzed, and used to refine behavioural predictions.
• Over time, users are subtly conditioned by algorithmic content, influencing their choices to serve corporate interests. This gradual manipulation reduces individual autonomy, as those in power shape user behaviour for profit.

Challenges in Regulation

• Despite increasing awareness of the dangers posed by surveillance capitalism, regulatory frameworks struggle to keep pace with technological advancements. Laws like the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and India’s Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA) aim to give users more control over their data.
• However, these regulations do not address the core issue — the commodification of personal information. Existing legal frameworks, designed for traditional capitalism, fall short of protecting individuals from surveillance capitalism’s structural impact.
• Corporate lobbying and political interests further weaken regulatory efforts. Surveillance capitalism benefits those in power, making it difficult to implement meaningful restrictions. The rise of tech leaders in politics demonstrates how corporate influence can shape policymaking to favour business interests.
• This dynamic obstructs regulations on data collection and behavioural manipulation, allowing tech giants to maintain control with limited accountability.

Conclusion

• As technology becomes more integrated into daily life, understanding surveillance capitalism is essential. It highlights the potential dangers of unchecked data exploitation and the need for strong regulatory frameworks. Without proper oversight, this system threatens individual privacy and autonomy.
• Raising awareness and advocating for meaningful policy changes can empower users to engage critically with digital platforms and demand better protections for their rights.

3) Internet Shutdowns in 2024: India Tops Government-Imposed Curbs

GS 3: Internal Security: Concern over Internet shutdowns

Why is it in the news?

• India recorded the highest number of government-imposed Internet shutdowns globally in 2024, despite Myanmar experiencing one more overall disruption, according to a report by Access Now.
• Although the total shutdowns in India decreased compared to the previous year, the Union and State governments remained the top enforcers.

More about the news

• Shutdowns were reported across 16 Indian States and Union Territories, with Manipur (21), Haryana (12), and Jammu & Kashmir (12) leading. Of the 84 shutdowns, 41 were linked to protests, while 23 were related to communal violence.
• Globally, 296 Internet shutdowns occurred in 2024, the highest ever recorded. India accounted for 28% of these, with 84 shutdowns, while Myanmar faced 85. Of Myanmar’s shutdowns, 11 were imposed by external entities, including China (2), Thailand (4), and armed groups like the NUG, MNDAA, and TNLA.
• Examination-related shutdowns also drew criticism, with India imposing five such curbs. Jharkhand enforced one during the General Graduate Level Combined Competitive Examinations in September, while Assam imposed shutdowns during government job exams.
• Rajasthan also issued a shutdown during the Public Service Commission exam in January. Access Now criticized these actions as disproportionate responses to prevent exam cheating.

4) Pilot Fatigue and Rest Hours: The Ongoing Battle for Safer Skies

GS 2: Society: Demand for increased rest hours

Why is it in the news?

• The demand for increased rest hours for pilots has been a long-standing issue. After a year-long dispute over the Directorate General of Civil Aviation’s (DGCA) relaxed duty norms introduced in January 2024, the Delhi High Court ruled on February 24, 2025, that most of these provisions would come into effect from July 1, 2025.
• This judgment concludes a six-year legal battle initiated by pilot unions against the DGCA’s 2019 norms, which had extended permissible night flying from one to two consecutive nights, reduced rest periods for ultra-long flights, and allowed airlines to use pilots during unforeseen circumstances like bad weather.

Delhi High Court Ruling

• The Delhi High Court ruled that the liberalized duty and rest norms, initially opposed by airlines, would be implemented from July 1, 2025. These norms include increasing weekly rest from 36 to 48 hours and mandating quarterly reports of fatigue complaints and airlines’ responses to the DGCA.
• Some contentious provisions, such as redefining night duty from 00:00 to 06:00 hours and capping night duty landings to two, will be implemented by November 1, 2025.
• Additionally, the permissible extension of duty during emergencies has been reduced from three to two hours, while corresponding rest periods have been increased.

Reasons for Pilot Demands

• Pilots are demanding more rest hours due to the increased workload following the post-COVID travel surge. Daily flying often includes up to four landings, translating into 10 hours of flying and 12-13 hours of total duty.
• Since the DGCA’s 2019 rules permitted two consecutive nights of flying, pilots have struggled with fatigue, particularly during the circadian low window (2 a.m. to 6 a.m.).
• The rise of low-cost carriers has further increased short-haul international night flights, often without hotel rest at the destination, forcing pilots to operate return legs immediately. This has led to frequent overshooting of duty hours on routes like Bahrain and Jeddah.

Pilot Workload and Leave Policies

• Pilots typically fly 50 to 90 hours per month, with total duty hours, including pre- and post-flight tasks, reaching 140-150 hours. Although this appears lighter than a 9-5 job, pilots face unique challenges.
• DGCA rules entitle them to weekly rest only on the eighth day. Leave policies include six casual leaves, 12 sick leaves, and 30 privilege leaves at Air India, while IndiGo offers 42 PLs to captains and 22 to first officers. These leaves must be applied for a year in advance due to roster planning and flight scheduling requirements.

Fatigue Factors and Unstable Rosters

• Flying conditions further contribute to fatigue. Cockpit environments restrict movement, limit airflow, and expose pilots to background noise, vibration, and fluctuating oxygen levels. Automation has increased the need for vigilant monitoring, adding mental strain.
• Erratic rosters are another challenge, with duty times frequently rescheduled, disrupting pilots’ pre-flight rest. Alternating between day and night shifts disturbs circadian rhythms, impacting health and performance.
• While DGCA norms align with U.S. and European standards, Indian pilot unions lack negotiation power, as airlines enforce only DGCA’s upper limits.
• Fatigue is evident as pilots reportedly sleep 1.5 to 2.5 hours during domestic and short-haul international flights of up to five hours. The situation worsened after Air India and Air India Express revised pilot contracts in 2023, reducing fixed pay from 70 to 40 flying hours, compelling pilots to fly more for higher earnings.

Airline Perspective

• Air India claims to prioritize crew well-being through robust fatigue management protocols, including the Jeppesen Boeing Alertness Model (BAM), a dedicated Fatigue Safety Action Group (F-SAG), and a non-punitive fatigue reporting system.
• The airline asserts that its 3,500 pilots are sufficient for current operations under existing DGCA norms. However, IndiGo has not provided details about its fatigue management practices.

Industry Challenges and Future Outlook

• Airlines face rising costs due to increased airport tariffs, supply-chain disruptions, and higher leasing costs for new aircraft. The International Air Transport Association (IATA) projects global airline net profits of $36.6 billion in 2025, with a 3.6% profit margin and an average net profit of $7 per passenger. Flight crew salaries account for 8.7% of total airline costs.
• As of November 2024, India had 11,775 employed pilots and nearly 800 aircraft. With the country being the world’s fastest-growing aviation market and Air India and IndiGo ordering 1,000 new aircraft for delivery by 2035, pilot demand will continue to grow, intensifying efforts to optimize their utilization while ensuring adequate rest and safety standards.

5) Health Impacts of Space Travel on Astronauts

GS 3: Science and Technology: Exposure to space travel

Context

• Space travel exposes astronauts to unique environmental challenges, including microgravity, high-energy radiation, and isolation, causing various physiological and psychological changes.
• The human body, adapted for Earth’s conditions, struggles to cope with these stressors, particularly during long-duration missions.

Physiological Challenges

• Astronauts face significant physiological challenges due to the absence of gravity and Earth’s protective atmosphere.
• According to the director of the Centre for Space Biomedicine at the University of Pittsburgh, prolonged exposure to space increases health risks.
• Unlike Earth, where the atmosphere and magnetic field shield humans from cosmic radiation, astronauts encounter high-energy radiation that can damage DNA, elevate cancer risk, cause neurodegenerative effects, and disrupt immune function.
• While the Earth’s magnetosphere offers some protection for low-earth orbit missions, astronauts traveling beyond this zone, such as to the Moon, experience much higher radiation doses.
• Gravity plays a vital role in regulating bodily functions, and its absence causes fluid shifts that increase intracranial pressure, affecting vision. The lack of mechanical stress also leads to bone density loss, muscle atrophy, and cardiovascular changes, making it difficult for the body to regulate blood pressure upon return.

Neurological and Sensory Effects

• Microgravity further impacts the inner ear’s ability to sense movement and orientation, leading to balance and coordination issues. This condition, known as spaceflight-associated neuro-ocular syndrome (SANS), is linked to impaired vision caused by fluid shifts and increased intracranial pressure affecting the eyes.
• These challenges highlight the need for personalized risk profiles and countermeasures.

Psychological and Social Challenges

• Long-duration space missions also pose psychological challenges. Astronauts live in confined, isolated environments with limited social interaction and exposure to natural stimuli.
• This can lead to psychological stress, sleep disturbances, and mood disorders, affecting overall well-being.

Recovery After Spaceflight

• Recovery after space travel largely depends on mission duration. For short-duration missions of a few days in low-earth orbit, around 95% of biological damage appears reversible.
• However, for astronauts spending months aboard the International Space Station, recovery is proportional to time spent in space. While most physiological systems gradually return to normal, some issues, like vision problems associated with SANS, can persist.

Conclusion

• As space agencies plan for longer missions, such as those to Mars, ongoing research aims to develop effective countermeasures. Understanding individual health profiles and mission-specific risks will be crucial for ensuring astronaut safety and well-being during future explorations.

6) Scientists Propose Tabletop Test to Check Quantumness of Gravity

GS 3: Science and Technology: Fundamental nature of gravity

Context

• General relativity and quantum mechanics are two highly successful yet incompatible theories. While general relativity explains gravity, quantum mechanics describes electromagnetic, strong nuclear, and weak nuclear forces.
• Scientists have long sought to understand how gravity fits into quantum mechanics. A new proposal offers a tabletop experiment to test the quantumness of gravity.

More about the news

• Unlike Newtonian mechanics, where measuring a system doesn’t alter it, quantum mechanics dictates that observing a system forces it into a definite state. This measurement-induced collapse indicates the system follows quantum rules. Classical objects like planets, cricket balls, and cars don’t exhibit this behaviour.
• While both quantum mechanics and general relativity have been experimentally validated, their incompatibility has driven scientists to seek a unifying theory.
• Some advanced theories predict deviations from known physics under extreme conditions, like the universe’s beginning or inside black holes, making them difficult to test. To determine whether gravity behaves quantum mechanically, precise experiments are required to rule out classical explanations.

Proposed Experiment

• The proposed experiment involves a test mass in a superposition of two paths interacting gravitationally with a probe mass, also in superposition. These interactions create varying distances between the masses. For each path of the test mass, there are two possible paths for the probe mass.
• Unlike previous approaches that focused on strong gravitational fields near black holes, this experiment tests weak gravity, similar to the force near small objects. The idea suggests that fundamental quantum gravity features might persist even under such conditions.
• Despite its promise, the experiment faces significant challenges. Quantum properties usually appear at microscopic scales, while gravity is more prominent around larger objects. Creating a quantum superposition of a sufficiently massive object with measurable gravitational force remains a complex task.
• To overcome this, the experiment proposes using nanocrystals weighing about one-trillionth of a gram, separated by one-tenth of a millimetre. This setup meets the necessary criteria but could take nearly a decade to execute.

Creating Superposition

• The experiment relies on creating a superposition using a quantum property called spin. The spin affects the nanocrystals’ motion and can be controlled by an external magnetic field. In superposition, the spin exists in two states until measured, causing the nanocrystal to follow two paths simultaneously.
• Rapid measurement is crucial, as quantum superpositions are fragile and decay quickly. Environmental factors like gas collisions, seismic activity, or even moving clouds could disrupt the superposition. Therefore, the experiment must occur in a near-perfect vacuum with highly efficient detection systems.

Conclusion and Future Prospects

• Despite the challenges, the proposed test offers a feasible path to studying quantum gravity. It represents significant progress compared to past approaches requiring extreme conditions, like black hole environments.
• This experiment could reveal whether gravity behaves quantum mechanically or follows entirely new principles, advancing our understanding of the fundamental nature of gravity.

7) Three-Language Policy Under NEP 2020

GS 2: Polity and Governance: NEP 2020

Why is it in the news?

• The Central Government has withheld funds under the Samagra Shiksha scheme to Tamil Nadu due to the state’s refusal to implement the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 and its associated three-language formula.
• Tamil Nadu adheres to a two-language policy (Tamil and English) and opposes the inclusion of Hindi, considering it a threat to its linguistic identity.

Understanding the Three-Language Formula

The three-language formula was first introduced under NEP 1968, making Hindi mandatory nationwide with specific requirements for states:

• Hindi-speaking states: Teach Hindi, English, and a modern Indian language (preferably a South Indian language).
• Non-Hindi-speaking states: Teach the regional language, Hindi, and English.

NEP 2020 retains this formula but offers flexibility:

• Students can choose any three languages, with at least two being native to India.
• In addition to the state language, another Indian language (not necessarily Hindi) is required.
• Emphasis is placed on bilingual education, prioritizing the mother tongue and English.
• Sanskrit is highlighted as an optional choice.

Significance of the Policy

• Promotes Multilingualism: Encourages language proficiency, enhancing cognitive and communication skills.
• Fosters National Integration: Bridges the north-south divide by promoting regional languages alongside Hindi.
• Expands Career Opportunities: Multilingual skills improve job prospects and ease inter-state migration.
• Preserves Regional Languages: Ensures continued use and protection of regional languages.

Key Challenges

• Linguistic Imposition: Non-Hindi-speaking states like Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and West Bengal see it as an attempt to impose Hindi.
• Resource Constraints: Many schools lack trained teachers for additional languages.
• Academic Burden: Learning a third language may increase students’ workload.
• Neglect of Global Languages: Critics argue that focus should be on international languages like French, German, or Mandarin.

Way Forward

• A balanced approach through dialogue between the Centre and states is essential. Since education falls under the concurrent list, both share responsibility.
• Disputes over language should not obstruct crucial funding for education initiatives like the Samagra Shiksha scheme.

8) Nadir Shah’s Victory and the Fall of Mughal Power

GS 1: Culture and History: Nadir Shah Invasion

Why is it in the news?

• The Battle of Karnal, fought on February 24, 1739, marked the beginning of the end for the Mughal Empire. Nadir Shah, founder of the Afsharid dynasty of Iran, defeated the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah ‘Rangila’ in less than three hours.
• Following the victory, Nadir Shah captured Delhi, plundered its treasures, and took the famous Peacock Throne along with the Koh-i-Noor diamond. While he spared Rangila’s life and restored most of his territories, the Mughal Empire was left permanently weakened.
• Though the Mughals continued ruling for another 118 years, their power dwindled, with the last emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, reduced to ruling only within the Red Fort.

Mughal Decline: Deep-Rooted Causes

• The decline of the Mughal Empire was not solely due to Nadir Shah’s invasion but was symptomatic of deeper structural issues. Historians attributed the decline to an excessive tax burden on peasants, leading to frequent revolts and further tax hikes, creating a vicious cycle.
• Further, it pointed to the bloated Mughal nobility, where an influx of nobles outpaced the availability of revenue-generating jagirs, causing corruption and military inefficiency. They also emphasized the alienation of Hindus and other minorities due to Aurangzeb’s oppressive religious policies.

Nadir Shah’s Invasion: The Final Blow

• By the time of Aurangzeb’s death, the Mughal Empire was already struggling against multiple challengers like the Marathas in the south, Ahoms in the east, and the Jats, Rajputs, Bundelas, and Sikhs in the north and west. These constant conflicts strained the Mughal treasury.
• Nadir Shah, a military genius often called the “Napoleon of Persia,” had already consolidated power in Iran, defeated the Ottomans and Russians, and conquered Kandahar by 1738. He entered India through the Khyber Pass, swiftly overcoming Mughal vassal states and advancing toward Delhi.

Mughal Incompetence and the Battle’s Outcome

• Muhammad Shah’s delayed response reflected the inefficiency of the Mughal administration. Nadir Shah had taken Kabul by June 1738 and crossed the Khyber Pass by November, yet Rangila did not mobilize his forces until January 1739.
• The two armies finally met at Karnal, just 125 km from Delhi. Despite the Mughal army’s numerical superiority—300,000 soldiers, 2,000 war elephants, and 3,000 cannons—their outdated tactics were no match for Nadir Shah’s disciplined 55,000-strong force, equipped with modern weaponry and superior cavalry tactics.
• Nadir Shah lured Mughal commander Sa’adat Khan into a frontal cavalry charge. As the Mughals advanced, the Persian light cavalry parted, revealing mounted musketeers armed with horse-mounted swivel guns. They fired at point-blank range, decimating the Mughal cavalry within minutes. The battle ended in a swift and decisive Persian victory.

Sack of Delhi and Mughal Collapse

• Following the battle, Nadir Shah captured Muhammad Shah and marched to Delhi. The city witnessed one of its most violent episodes, with nearly 30,000 civilians massacred, thousands of women enslaved, and entire neighbourhoods like Dariba Kalan burned to the ground. Historians noted how the Persians plundered gold, silver, jewels, and cloth, stripping the city of its wealth.
• Nadir Shah eventually restored Rangila’s territories and even married his son to Rangila’s niece. However, he departed with the accumulated wealth of eight generations of Mughal rule, leaving the treasury empty. The Mughals, now financially crippled, could no longer maintain control over their empire.

Aftermath: The Slow End of an Empire

• In the century following Nadir Shah’s invasion, the Mughal Empire steadily lost territory and authority. Weakened by internal strife, lack of resources, and rising regional powers like the Marathas and Sikhs, the Mughals became symbolic rulers.
• This decline culminated in 1857 when the British formally ended the Mughal dynasty after the Revolt of 1857, marking the final chapter of Mughal rule in India.