1) The Alarming Impact of Global Warming on Mountain Ecosystems 

GS 3: Environment and Biodiversity: Glacier melt and mountain degradation

Why is it in the news?

• A new UNESCO report highlights the severe and largely irreversible changes occurring in the world’s mountain ranges due to rising global temperatures. Higher elevations are warming faster, leading to accelerated glacier melting, permafrost thawing, reduced snow cover, and erratic snowfall patterns.
• The United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 – Mountains and Glaciers: Water Towers, released on March 21 to mark the first-ever World Day for Glaciers, underscores the urgent need for global action.

Glacier Melting

• Glaciers are disappearing at an unprecedented rate, with the last three years witnessing the largest mass loss on record. Scientists measure glacial health by assessing snowfall accumulation and melt rates annually. Since 1975, glaciers—excluding Greenland and Antarctica—have lost over 9,000 billion tonnes of ice, equivalent to an ice block the size of Germany with a 25-meter thickness.
• In 2024 alone, glaciers lost 450 gigatons of mass, with Scandinavia, Svalbard, and North Asia experiencing the highest losses. Apart from warmer temperatures, increased wildfires and dust storms deposit black carbon and particulate matter on glaciers, darkening surfaces and increasing solar radiation absorption. This significantly accelerates melting, particularly in high-radiation regions.

Accelerating Permafrost Thaw

• Permafrost, which remains frozen for at least two consecutive years, is melting rapidly in high-altitude regions. This is concerning as permafrost stores vast amounts of organic carbon, and its thawing releases carbon into the atmosphere, exacerbating climate change. Mountain permafrost alone holds around 4.5% of global soil organic carbon.
• Permafrost also stabilizes rock slopes, glacial moraines, and debris-covered landscapes. As it melts, these slopes weaken, increasing the risk of landslides, erosion, and other natural hazards.

Decline in Snow Cover

• The UNESCO report states that nearly all mountain regions have experienced declining snow cover, particularly during spring and summer, with further reductions expected. Snow cover includes all accumulated snow and ice that remains unmelted.
• A 2024 study revealed that between 1979 and 2022, global persistent snow cover declined by 7.79%, signalling a significant reduction in long-term snowfall.

Erratic Snowfall Patterns

• Atmospheric warming is shifting the elevation at which rainfall turns into snow, leading to reduced snow accumulation at lower altitudes.
• Warmer regions are experiencing shorter snow cover durations, earlier snowmelt, and a higher proportion of precipitation falling as rain rather than snow. This disrupts hydrological cycles and increases climate variability in mountain ecosystems.

Significance of These Changes

• Mountains cover 33 million sq km of Earth’s surface and are vital to global water security, sustaining nearly 2 billion people who rely on glacier-fed freshwater. Climate-induced glacier loss threatens water availability, making water flows more unpredictable.
• Erratic peak and low flow periods, increased sedimentation, and shifting hydrological cycles will disrupt agriculture, hydropower, and water supply in downstream regions. Melting glaciers and thawing permafrost also heighten the risk of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs).
• These catastrophic floods, triggered by collapsing natural ice or moraine dams, have killed over 12,000 people in the past 200 years and caused widespread destruction of homes, infrastructure, and agricultural land.
• Glacier meltwater contributes 25-30% of the current global sea level rise. Between 2006 and 2016, glaciers lost 335 billion tonnes of ice per year, raising sea levels by nearly 1 mm annually—enough to expose 300,000 more people to flooding risks each year.

Call for Urgent Action

• Experts stress the need for global awareness, policy shifts, and resource mobilization to mitigate these impacts. Addressing glacier melt and mountain degradation is crucial to safeguarding global water security and mitigating climate-related disasters.
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2) Sub-Categorisation of SCs in Andhra Pradesh

GS 2: Polity and Governance:  Fair distribution of reservation benefits

Why is it in the news?

• The Andhra Pradesh Cabinet has approved the recommendations of a one-member commission on the sub-categorisation of Scheduled Castes (SCs) to ensure the fair distribution of reservation benefits.
• The demand for sub-categorisation has been ongoing for over 30 years, with past efforts including the Justice Ramachandra Rao Commission in 1996.

What is Sub-Categorisation?

• Sub-categorisation divides the SC category into smaller sub-castes to ensure equitable distribution of benefits, particularly in education, employment, and affirmative action.
• This aims to address disparities within the SC community and ensure that the most disadvantaged groups receive adequate representation.

Historical Background and Supreme Court Rulings

• In 1975, Punjab issued a notification prioritising Balmiki and Mazhabi Sikhs in SC reservations, considering them among the most disadvantaged. However, this policy faced legal challenges.
• In E.V. Chinnaiah (2004), the Supreme Court struck down a similar sub-classification law in Andhra Pradesh, ruling that SCs and STs form a single, indivisible class under the Presidential List (Articles 341 and 342). The Court stated that states could not create internal quotas within the SC/ST categories.
• In 2020, the Supreme Court suggested reconsidering the E.V. Chinnaiah judgment, acknowledging that disparities exist within the SC list. It also applied the “creamy layer” principle to SCs, as established in Jarnail Singh v. Lachhmi Narain Gupta (2018).
• Finally, in 2024, the Supreme Court allowed sub-categorisation of SCs and STs for affirmative action, with strict guidelines for its implementation. The ruling clarified that Article 341 does not prohibit sub-categorisation but only restricts the President’s power to modify the SC list.

Arguments in Favor of Sub-Categorisation

• Supporters argue that certain SC groups remain underrepresented despite reservations, necessitating separate quotas within the SC category. Since SCs are not a homogeneous class, some groups face greater socio-economic disadvantages, justifying the need for internal classification.
• Article 14 of the Constitution, which guarantees equality, allows for sub-categorisation to achieve substantive equality.
• Additionally, sub-categorisation could lead to a caste census, enabling policymakers to assess representation and address inequities in the distribution of reservations.

Arguments Against Sub-Categorisation

• Critics argue that sub-classification could lead to political manipulation of reservation policies, undermining the constitutional intent. They contend that modifying the President’s list of SCs through sub-categorisation is unconstitutional, as only Parliament has the authority to alter it.
• There are also concerns that the process may weaken the broader SC community’s political and social unity.

Way Forward

• While states now have legal backing to sub-classify SCs, the process must be data-driven, fair, and subject to judicial oversight to prevent misuse. Sub-categorisation should be based on quantifiable and demonstrable evidence rather than political considerations to ensure equitable benefits among different SC groups.
• Additionally, states must implement policies to exclude the “creamy layer” (wealthier members of SCs) from reservation benefits to ensure that affirmative action reaches the most disadvantaged sections effectively.

3) Jal Shakti Abhiyan 2025 Launched to Promote Water Conservation

GS 3: Environment and Biodiversity: Water Conservation

Why is it in the news?

• Marking World Water Day 2025, the Ministry of Jal Shakti launched the sixth edition of Jal Shakti Abhiyan: Catch the Rain – 2025 in Panchkula, Haryana. This year’s initiative, in collaboration with the Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change and the Government of Haryana, focuses on water conservation through community participation and innovative strategies.
• For the first time, the campaign was launched outside Delhi, symbolizing a broader outreach to grassroots communities. The event witnessed the enthusiastic participation of over 10,000 citizens, stakeholders, and water sector professionals.

Theme and Objectives

• The campaign, themed “Peoples’ Action for Water Conservation – Towards Intensified Community Connect”, emphasizes water security, rainwater harvesting, and groundwater recharge in response to climate change. A nationwide virtual launch took place, focusing on 148 key districts.
• Additionally, the “Jal-Jangal-Jan: Ek Prakritik Bandhan Abhiyan” (Water-Forest-People: The Intrinsic Bond campaign) was introduced in collaboration with the Ministry of Environment, aiming to restore ecological links between forests, rivers, and springs. Several awareness films were also released under the initiative.

Major Projects and Infrastructure Initiatives

Several impactful projects were inaugurated under Jal Shakti Abhiyan: Catch the Rain (JSA: CTR) and Swachh Bharat Mission–Grameen (SBM-G). These include:

• Water Conservation Projects: Rainwater harvesting systems, borewell recharge projects, and micro-irrigation initiatives.
• Best Practices Compendium: A compendium highlighting successful water conservation practices under Jal Shakti Abhiyan.
• Sanitation Infrastructure: Community sanitary complexes, liquid waste management systems, Gobardhan projects, and solid waste management sheds.

Haryana’s Water Governance Reforms

• Mukhyamantri Jal Sanchay Yojana: Strengthening community-led water conservation efforts.
• Water Resources Atlas: A scientific mapping tool for water availability and planning.
• Online Canal Water Management System: Enhancing irrigation efficiency and transparency.
• E-booklet on Integrated Water Resources Management: Providing insights into sustainable water conservation practices.

Moving Towards a Water-Secure Future

• The launch of Jal Shakti Abhiyan: Catch the Rain – 2025 reinforces India’s commitment to water conservation as a national priority. On World Water Day, the government reaffirmed the principle of “Every Drop Counts”, ensuring a sustainable water future under the leadership of PM Narendra Modi.
• With a strategic, inclusive, and community-led approach, India is taking decisive steps towards water security, ensuring that the nation remains resilient in the face of future water challenges.

4) India and the Arctic: Strategic Engagement and Policy Initiatives

GS 2: International Relations: India’s Arctic policy

Context

• India and Russia have deepened their cooperation in the Arctic, focusing on key areas such as scientific research, energy exploration, and maritime connectivity. Joint ventures in Arctic oil and gas extraction, particularly in the Dolginskoye oil field and Vostok oil cluster, are expanding energy cooperation.
• Additionally, both nations are working to enhance shipping through the Northern Sea Route (NSR), aiming to reduce transportation costs and improve global trade connectivity. Russia sees India’s increasing interest in the Arctic as a stabilizing factor in the region.

India’s Arctic Policy: A Comprehensive Approach

• India launched its Arctic Policy in 2022, under the Ministry of Earth Sciences, to balance scientific, environmental, economic, and strategic interests.
• The policy emphasizes sustainability and responsible exploration while securing opportunities in energy resources, shipping routes, and scientific collaboration. It is structured around six key pillars:

1) Scientific Research & Exploration: Advancing studies on climate change, geosciences, and Arctic biodiversity.

2) Climate & Environmental Protection: Ensuring that Arctic developments do not harm fragile ecosystems.

3) Economic & Human Development: Exploring Arctic resources while promoting sustainable economic activities.

4) Transportation & Connectivity: Strengthening India’s role in Arctic maritime routes for trade efficiency.

5) Governance & International Cooperation: Expanding ties with global institutions, including the Arctic Council.

6) National Capacity Building: Enhancing India’s Arctic expertise and training professionals in polar research.

India’s Arctic Mission: Research and Scientific Contributions

• India’s engagement in Arctic research began in 2007, with its first scientific expedition focusing on microbiology, atmospheric studies, and geology. The establishment of Himadri, India’s Arctic research station, in 2008 marked a significant milestone in polar research. India has continued to expand its efforts, including:

1) Conducting a winter expedition in 2023, studying climate change, sea-ice dynamics, and ocean circulation during polar night conditions.

2) Collaborating with Russia, Norway, and other Arctic nations through research institutes and joint scientific missions.

3) Investigating the Arctic’s impact on global climate patterns, particularly its influence on monsoons and weather systems in South Asia.

India and the Arctic Council

• The Arctic Council, established in 1996, serves as a key intergovernmental forum for Arctic cooperation. It consists of eight Arctic nations and indigenous Arctic community representatives, focusing on environmental protection, sustainable development, and scientific collaboration.
• India became an observer in 2013, actively contributing to Arctic research, climate change studies, and policy discussions. However, due to increasing geopolitical tensions and military activities by NATO countries, the Council’s activities were suspended in 2022.
• Despite this, India remains engaged, emphasizing peaceful cooperation and scientific advancement in the region.

India’s Role in Global Arctic Affairs

• India’s growing participation in Arctic affairs reflects the rising global significance of the region, particularly in climate change, energy security, and international trade.
• By strengthening its Arctic policy, expanding scientific missions, and collaborating with key stakeholders, India aims to balance strategic interests with environmental responsibility, ensuring a sustainable and cooperative approach to Arctic exploration.

5) Okjökull: The First Glacier Lost to Climate Change 

Why is it in the news?

• Iceland’s Okjökull glacier was the first to be officially declared dead due to human-caused climate change in 2014. Satellite images taken over three decades show its complete disappearance.

About Okjökull Glacier      

• Okjökull was a dome-shaped glacier situated on the summit crater of Ok, a 1,200-meter-high shield volcano located 71 km northwest of Reykjavík, Iceland.
• In 2023, Iceland also established the world’s first iceberg graveyard, featuring ice-like headstones for 15 major glaciers listed on the Global Glacier Casualty List. These glaciers, including the Anderson Glacier in Washington, USA, which was declared dead in 2015, are either extinct or critically endangered.

Understanding the Cryosphere

• The term cryosphere originates from the Greek word kryos, meaning frost or ice cold. It includes all frozen components of the Earth’s system, such as snow cover, glaciers, ice sheets, ice shelves, icebergs, sea ice, lake ice, river ice, permafrost, and seasonally frozen ground.
• The Earth has two major ice sheets—Greenland and Antarctica—which together hold over 70% of the world’s freshwater ice. The ice on both sheets exceeds 2 km in thickness.
• Additionally, 70% of Earth’s freshwater exists as snow or ice, and glaciers or ice sheets cover about 10% of the Earth’s land surface.

Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH): The Water Towers of Asia

• The Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) mountains stretch 3,500 km across eight countries—Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, Myanmar, and Pakistan.
• These mountains are known as the “water towers of Asia”, as they feed 10 major river systems, including the Ganga, Indus, Brahmaputra, Yangtze, and Mekong, supplying freshwater to nearly 1.9 billion people.
• However, the HKH cryosphere is warming at twice the global average rate, making it highly vulnerable to glacial outburst floods and other climate-related disasters.

Significance of the Cryosphere

• Climate Regulation: The cryosphere reflects sunlight (albedo effect), helping to regulate Earth’s temperature.
• Sea Level Control: It stores freshwater, preventing excessive sea-level rise.
• Water Cycle Contribution: Melting glaciers provide essential freshwater for drinking, irrigation, and hydropower.
• Ecosystem Support: It serves as a habitat for cold-adapted species.
• Climate Change Indicator: Its rapid melting signals global warming trends.

Threats to the Cryosphere

• Global Warming: Rising temperatures accelerate glacier and ice cap melting.
• Sea-Level Rise: Melting ice leads to coastal flooding and habitat loss.
• Ecosystem Disruptions: Marine mammals, fish stocks, and bird populations are affected.
• Permafrost Thawing: Releases carbon dioxide and methane, exacerbating climate change.
• Altered Snowfall Patterns: Changing snow cycles affect water availability and biodiversity.

Global Efforts to Preserve the Cryosphere

• Paris Agreement (2015): Aims to limit global warming to 1.5°C to protect ice-covered regions.
• International Cryosphere Climate Initiative (ICCI, 2009): Works with governments to implement glacier conservation programs.
• IPCC Reports: Highlight the urgency of climate action to mitigate cryospheric damage.
• National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE, India): Part of the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), focusing on preserving the Himalayas.
• CryoNet (WMO): A global monitoring network under the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) to track cryosphere changes.
• United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Goal 13 (Climate Action) and Goal 15 (Life on Land) emphasize protecting glaciers.
• Arctic Council: Facilitates cooperation among Arctic nations on environmental protection and climate policies.
• Global Ice Monitoring Initiatives: Programs like Global Cryosphere Watch (GCW) and ESA’s CryoSat Mission monitor ice loss.

Conclusion

• The cryosphere plays a crucial role in maintaining Earth’s climate, ecosystems, and freshwater resources. Its rapid decline due to climate change poses severe threats to global stability.
• Urgent international efforts are required to conserve glaciers and mitigate the impact of rising temperatures on the planet’s frozen regions.