1) Spring Equinox 2025: Understanding the Vernal Equinox

GS 1: Geography: Understanding equinox

Why is it in the news?

• The vernal equinox on March 20, 2025, marks the beginning of spring in the Northern Hemisphere and autumn in the Southern Hemisphere.

About Equinoxes

• Equinoxes occur twice a year, in March and September, when the sun appears directly above the Equator at noon. These are the only times when both poles receive sunlight simultaneously.
• In the Northern Hemisphere, the spring equinox typically falls between March 19 and 21, while the autumnal equinox occurs between September 21 and 24. The terms are reversed in the Southern Hemisphere, where March 20 signifies the autumnal equinox.
• The word “equinox” originates from the Latin words aequus (equal) and nox (night), indicating equal day and night.
• On an equinox, day and night are nearly equal in length across the globe. This phenomenon occurs because, unlike other days when Earth’s axis is tilted towards or away from the sun, the equinox aligns the planet’s axis and orbit in such a way that both hemispheres receive equal sunlight. This balance in solar exposure results in a transition of seasons.

Equinox vs. Solstice

• While equinoxes bring equal day and night, solstices mark the extremes in daylight duration. The summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, occurring between June 20 and 22, results in the longest day and shortest night as the Northern Hemisphere tilts towards the sun.
• Conversely, the winter solstice, between December 20 and 23, brings the shortest day and longest night. In both cases, the distribution of sunlight is highly uneven, contrasting with the equilibrium observed during an equinox.

Cultural and Traditional Significance

• Equinoxes hold deep cultural and historical importance across civilizations. The ancient Babylonian calendar was based on the first full moon following the March equinox, a practice still reflected in various springtime new year celebrations.
• Nowruz, the Persian new year, coincides with the vernal equinox and has been observed for over 3,000 years by Zoroastrian communities, including Parsis in India. The festival begins on the first day of Farvardin, the first month of the Iranian solar calendar, and lasts for 12 days.
• In Japan, the Vernal Equinox Day is a national holiday. In Christianity, Easter is determined based on the vernal equinox, while in Judaism, Passover begins on the first full moon following this event.
• Similarly, the autumnal equinox is associated with major cultural and religious festivals. Chuseok, a three-day Korean harvest festival, takes place during this time. In Judaism, Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish New Year, is observed 163 days after the first day of Passover, followed by Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement, ten days later.

Conclusion

• The equinoxes and solstices play a crucial role in shaping calendars, agricultural cycles, and religious traditions worldwide, marking the rhythmic balance of nature and human life.

2) Habitual Offender Laws in India: Legacy of Discrimination or Necessary Regulation?

GS 2: Polity and Governance: SC on Habitual Offender Laws

Why is it in the news?

• The Supreme Court of India has questioned the relevance of habitual offender laws, which classify a section of criminals under this category. Despite concerns over their discriminatory impact, the Government of India revealed that these laws still operate in 14 States and Union Territories.
• While some States like Punjab are moving towards discontinuation, others, such as Gujarat, argue for their continuation, citing intent rather than misuse.

Supreme Court’s Stand on Habitual Offender Laws

• In October 2024, while ruling on caste discrimination in jails, the Supreme Court called the habitual offender classification “constitutionally suspect” and criticized its misuse against de-notified tribes (DNTs).
• The court observed that these laws replaced the colonial-era Criminal Tribes Act but continued targeting DNTs. It urged States to review the necessity of such laws, noting that entire communities should not be labelled as habitual offenders.

Historical Background of the Habitual Offender Classification

• The criminalization of certain communities began with Regulation XXII of 1793, which gave magistrates the power to detain specific tribes. The Indian Penal Code (1860) and Criminal Procedure Code (1861) formalized registers for “dacoits and thugs.”
• The Criminal Tribes Act (CTA) of 1871 further entrenched this classification, allowing entire tribes to be deemed criminal. By 1924, this law applied across colonial India, drastically increasing the number of criminalized communities.
• After India’s independence, the Criminal Tribes Act Enquiry Committee (1949-50) recommended repealing the CTA. In 1952, the government decriminalized these tribes, categorizing them as De-notified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNT, NT, SNT).
• However, States soon enacted habitual offender laws, defining offenders based on prior convictions rather than community identity. Despite this shift, the Lokur Committee (1965) continued to associate these communities with an “anti-social heritage,” perpetuating discrimination.

Crimes Leading to Habitual Offender Classification

• State habitual offender laws listed crimes such as “being a thug,” “belonging to a gang of dacoits,” and “living on earnings from prostitution.” Registers were maintained to track offenders, and prison manuals often linked habitual offender status to former “criminal tribe” members.
• Rajasthan’s manual, for instance, explicitly allowed the classification of DNTs as habitual offenders. A major turning point came in 1998, when Budhan Sabar, a de-notified tribe member, died in police custody, sparking nationwide protests against the law’s misuse.

Advocacy for Change and Human Rights Concerns

• Following Budhan Sabar’s death, activists like Mahasweta Devi and G.N. Devy formed the De-notified and Nomadic Tribes Rights Action Group (DNT-RAG). The group petitioned the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) and the United Nations, highlighting continued police atrocities against DNTs under habitual offender laws.
• In 2000, an NHRC Advisory Group recommended repealing these laws. The United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (2007) also called for their abolition.
• Reports from various national commissions—B.S. Renke (2008) and the High-Level Committee led by Professor Virginius Xaxa (2014)—highlighted how habitual offender laws perpetuate stigma against DNTs.
• In 2020, journalist Sukanya Santha’s petition in the Supreme Court further exposed caste-based discrimination in prisons, strengthening calls for reform.

State Responses and the Current Scenario

• Punjab has not implemented the habitual offender law for over five years, with no records maintained. Odisha and Andhra Pradesh reported no cases under this law in recent years.
• Goa, citing the absence of DNTs in the State, claims there is no scope for misuse. Gujarat opposes repealing the law, arguing it is not intended for harassment. Telangana considers it a preventive measure, while Uttar Pradesh claims its Goondas Act already covers habitual offender provisions.
• According to National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) data (2022), about 1.9% of India’s 1.29 lakh convicts are labelled habitual offenders, with Delhi having the highest proportion (21.5%). The debate continues over whether these laws ensure security or reinforce historical discrimination.

3) India’s Trade and Economic Outlook

GS 3: Economy: India’s economic growth

Context

• In an era of escalating global trade tensions and geopolitical uncertainties, the Indian economy has shown remarkable resilience and steady growth. The Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI) March 2025 bulletin highlights the strength of domestic economic fundamentals despite global volatility.
• While uncertainties persist, India’s economy remains strong, driven by robust consumption and government spending. Inflation has moderated, and policy measures have helped stabilize market liquidity. However, foreign portfolio outflows and currency depreciation remain key risks.

Domestic Economic Developments

Resilient GDP Growth Amidst Global Challenges

• India’s GDP is projected to grow by 6.5% in FY 2024-25, as per the National Statistical Office’s (NSO) Second Advance Estimates. In Q3, GDP growth rebounded to 6.2% from 5.6% in Q2, supported by higher private consumption and government expenditure.
• Key sectors contributing to this growth include construction, trade, and financial services.

Foreign Portfolio Outflows & Currency Risks

• Sustained foreign portfolio investor (FPI) outflows have put pressure on stock markets and the rupee. However, domestic investors have increased their holdings, stabilizing market ownership structures. Despite this, the rupee remains vulnerable to depreciation due to external economic uncertainties.

Inflation Trends: Headline Inflation Eases

• Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation dropped to a seven-month low of 3.6% in February 2025, primarily due to a decline in vegetable prices. However, core inflation, which excludes food and fuel, increased to 4.1%, indicating persistent price pressures in other sectors.

Employment Trends

• Manufacturing employment grew at the second-fastest rate since the Purchasing Managers’ Index (PMI) survey began. The services sector also witnessed significant employment expansion, reflecting strong demand.
• Additionally, urban unemployment remains at a historic low of 6.4%, highlighting a positive labour market trend.

Trade & External Sector

Import and Export Trends

• India’s exports grew marginally by 0.1% to $395.6 billion between April 2024 and February 2025. However, merchandise exports declined by 10.9% year-on-year in February due to base effects and weak global demand.
• Electronics, rice, and ores performed well, while petroleum products, engineering goods, chemicals, and gems & jewellery struggled.
• Imports rose by 5.7% to $656.7 billion during the same period, driven by gold, electronics, and petroleum. However, in February 2025, imports fell by 16.3%, narrowing the trade deficit.
• A significant drop in oil and gold imports contributed to this decline, while electronic goods and machinery imports remained strong, reflecting domestic investment demand.

Financial & Monetary Policies

RBI’s Liquidity Management

• The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) managed liquidity through open market operations (OMO), daily repo auctions, and dollar/rupee swaps. These measures helped stabilize domestic liquidity despite ongoing capital outflows.

Sector-Specific Developments

Agriculture Sector

• India’s foodgrain production for 2024-25 is estimated at 330.9 million tonnes, marking a 4.8% increase from the previous year. This growth is driven by a 6.8% rise in kharif output and a 2.8% increase in rabi production, as per second advance estimates.

Automobile Sector

• Car and motorcycle sales declined in February due to weaker demand. However, tractor sales saw double-digit growth, indicating strong demand from the rural economy.

Infrastructure & Construction

• Toll collections and E-way bill generation recorded double-digit growth, signalling strong infrastructure activity. Increased government spending on infrastructure projects further supported economic momentum.

Global Setting

Trade War & Tariffs Impacting Growth

• The global economy started 2025 with strong momentum but is now slowing due to rising protectionism and trade restrictions. The ongoing US-China tariff escalations could lower US GDP growth by 0.6 percentage points in 2025 and shrink the economy by 0.3-0.4% in the long run.
• The OECD has revised global GDP forecasts downward to 3.1% in 2025 and 3.0% in 2026 due to weakening demand.

Market Volatility & Currency Fluctuations

• The US dollar lost its gains since November 2024 due to uncertainty in trade policies. European bond yields surged as Germany and other nations ramped up military spending. Equity markets worldwide have been volatile, reflecting concerns over slowing global growth.

Commodity Markets & Inflationary Pressures

• Global oil prices have declined by 15% since mid-January 2025 due to lower demand expectations. Gold prices surged to a record high of $3,000 per ounce as investors sought safer assets.
• Meanwhile, the food production outlook has improved, with cereal production exceeding 2024 levels.

Conclusion

• Despite global economic headwinds, India’s economy remains stable at 6.5% growth, driven by strong domestic demand. Inflation is under control, though core inflation remains persistent, requiring careful monetary management.
• Weak global demand continues to pose trade challenges, but a narrowing trade deficit provides some relief. While foreign investor outflows present risks, robust domestic investment ensures resilience. The RBI’s proactive policies have been crucial in stabilizing liquidity and inflation expectations.
• Moving forward, sustained policy support and strong domestic fundamentals will be key to maintaining economic momentum amidst financial volatility and global trade disruptions.

4) Transforming India’s Agricultural and Dairy Sectors

GS 3: Economy: India’s agriculture and allied activities

Context

• The Union Cabinet has approved several key policy initiatives aimed at strengthening India’s agriculture and dairy sectors.
• Among them is the Revised National Program for Dairy Development (NPDD), which now has an additional budget of ₹1,000 crore, raising the total allocation to ₹2,790 crore for the 15th Finance Commission period (2021-22 to 2025-26).
• Similarly, the Revised Rashtriya Gokul Mission (RGM) has been given an additional outlay of ₹1,000 crore, bringing the total to ₹3,400 crore.
• The Union Budget 2025-26 continues to position agriculture as the primary driver of India’s economic development. To enhance agricultural sustainability, the government has extended the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana and the Restructured Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme until 2025-26.
• Additionally, the One-time Special Package on Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) has been extended from January 1, 2025, until further notice. Other major initiatives include the launch of the National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF) with a financial outlay of ₹2,481 crore and the National Mission on Edible Oils – Oilseeds with a ₹10,103 crore allocation.
• The rationalization of Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) has also been approved, consolidating multiple schemes under two umbrella programs—Pradhan Mantri Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (PM-RKVY) and Krishonnati Yojana (KY).

Revised National Program for Dairy Development (NPDD)

• On March 19, 2025, the Union Cabinet approved the Revised NPDD, a Central Sector Scheme designed to enhance India’s dairy industry. This initiative aims to improve milk procurement, processing capacity, and quality control while ensuring better market access and pricing for farmers through value addition.
• Additionally, it focuses on strengthening the dairy supply chain to boost rural incomes and development. The Revised NPDD has two key components:

1) Component A: Enhancing dairy infrastructure.

2) Component B: Implementing the “Dairying through Cooperatives” (DTC) initiative in collaboration with the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA).

• The expected outcomes of this program include the establishment of 10,000 new Dairy Cooperative Societies and the creation of 3.2 lakh additional employment opportunities, with 70% of the jobs benefiting women.

Revised Rashtriya Gokul Mission (RGM)

• To further support the livestock sector, the Union Cabinet has revised the Rashtriya Gokul Mission (RGM), allocating an additional ₹1,000 crore. This scheme promotes the genetic improvement of cattle and the conservation of indigenous breeds.

Key additions to the Revised RGM include:

• Heifer Rearing Centres: A one-time assistance of 35% of the capital cost to establish 30 housing facilities for 15,000 heifers.
• Support for High Genetic Merit (HGM) Heifers: A 3% interest subvention on loans taken by farmers to purchase HGM IVF heifers from milk unions or financial institutions.
• Ongoing initiatives under RGM focus on strengthening semen stations, expanding the Artificial Insemination (AI) network, promoting sex-sorted semen for breed improvement, and organizing skill development and awareness programs for farmers.
• Additionally, the program includes the establishment of Centres of Excellence and the strengthening of Central Cattle Breeding Farms. These efforts are expected to increase the incomes of 8.5 crore dairy farmers while ensuring scientific conservation of indigenous cattle breeds.

Government’s Broader Vision for Agricultural Growth

• India is the largest producer of milk and the second-largest producer of fruits and vegetables globally. With rising global demand for organic produce, value-added dairy products, and sustainable farming methods, the government has taken proactive steps to modernize these sectors.
• Over the past six months, several policy measures have been introduced to improve productivity, enhance infrastructure, and expand market access for farmers.
• The Union Budget 2024-25 has made significant allocations to agriculture, animal health, and rural development. The government’s strategy includes targeted investments, regulatory reforms, and infrastructure upgrades to increase farmer incomes, improve disease control in livestock, and strengthen cooperative movements to support small and marginal farmers.
• These initiatives collectively aim to ensure a more resilient and self-sufficient agricultural economy.

Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, and Dairying Provisions in Union Budget 2025-26

• The Union Budget 2025-26 positions agriculture as a key driver of India’s economic growth, emphasizing higher productivity, better farmer incomes, improved rural infrastructure, and self-sufficiency in essential commodities. The provisions extend to animal husbandry, dairying, and fisheries, ensuring comprehensive development in the primary sector.

1) Agriculture Sector Provisions

1.1 Prime Minister Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana

A new scheme targeting 100 low-productivity districts aims to enhance agricultural productivity, promote crop diversification, encourage sustainable practices, and improve irrigation and post-harvest storage. This initiative is expected to benefit 1.7 crore farmers.

1.2 Rural Prosperity and Resilience Programme

This multi-sectoral program addresses underemployment in agriculture by promoting skilling, investments, and technology-driven transformation. The first phase will cover 100 agricultural districts.

1.3 Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses

A six-year initiative focusing on Tur, Urad, and Masoor aims to develop climate-resilient seeds and enhance protein content. To ensure fair prices, procurement by NAFED and NCCF will continue for four years.

1.4 Comprehensive Programme for Vegetables and Fruits

This initiative promotes vegetable and fruit production by strengthening supply chains, encouraging value addition and processing, and ensuring better market prices. Implementation will be in collaboration with states and Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs).

1.5 National Mission on High-Yielding Seeds

Research efforts will focus on developing high-yield, pest-resistant, and climate-resilient seeds. Since July 2024, over 100 seed varieties have been released for commercial availability.

1.6 Cotton Productivity Mission

A five-year initiative aims to improve cotton yield and sustainability, particularly promoting extra-long staple cotton. This aligns with the government’s “5F vision” for strengthening the textile sector.

1.7 Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Loan Limit Enhancement

The loan limit under the Modified Interest Subvention Scheme has been increased from ₹3 lakh to ₹5 lakh, benefiting 7.7 crore farmers, fishermen, and dairy farmers.

1.8 Urea Plant in Assam

A new urea plant at Namrup, Assam, with an annual production capacity of 12.7 lakh metric tons, will boost self-sufficiency in fertilizer production.

2) Animal Husbandry and Dairying

2.1 Makhana Board in Bihar

A dedicated board will be established to support makhana production, processing, and marketing. It will also organize makhana farmers into FPOs to strengthen their market presence.

2.2 Fisheries Development Framework

Special attention is being given to Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep Islands, focusing on sustainable fisheries development in the Exclusive Economic Zone and High Seas. This initiative is expected to enhance marine sector potential and increase exports.

3) Credit and Financial Inclusion

3.1 Grameen Credit Score

Public Sector Banks will develop a framework to assess creditworthiness for Self-Help Group (SHG) members and rural borrowers, ensuring better financial access.

3.2 Expansion of Credit for Micro Enterprises

A customized credit card with a ₹5 lakh limit will be introduced for micro-enterprises registered on the Udyam portal, with 10 lakh cards to be issued in the first year.

4) Research and Infrastructure Development

4.1 Gene Bank for Crop Germplasm

A second gene bank will be established with a repository of 10 lakh germplasm lines, ensuring long-term food security.

4.2 Research and Development in Agriculture

Enhanced support for private-sector-driven R&D will boost innovation in agriculture, leading to improved productivity and sustainability.

The Union Budget 2025-26 reinforces the government’s commitment to enhancing agricultural productivity, ensuring financial stability for farmers, and strengthening allied sectors like animal husbandry, dairying, and fisheries. These initiatives collectively aim to create a more resilient and self-sufficient agricultural economy.

Overview of Cabinet Decisions Since October 2024

• The Union Cabinet has introduced key policy decisions aimed at strengthening agriculture, animal husbandry, and allied sectors. These initiatives focus on risk coverage, self-sufficiency, sustainability, and financial support for farmers.

Key Cabinet Approvals

1) Continuation of Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) and Restructured Weather-Based Crop Insurance Scheme (RWBCIS)

• On January 1, 2025, the government extended PMFBY and RWBCIS until 2025-26 with a total outlay of ₹69,515.71 crore (2021-26). This will provide risk coverage against natural calamities.
• Additionally, a ₹824.77 crore Fund for Innovation and Technology (FIAT) has been approved to enhance transparency and efficiency in claim settlements.

2) Extension of One-time Special Package on Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP)

• To ensure the sustainable availability of DAP at affordable prices, the Cabinet extended the one-time special package beyond the Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS) at ₹3,500 per MT, with an estimated budget of ₹3,850 crore.

3) Increase in Minimum Support Price (MSP) for Copra (2025 Season)

• On December 20, 2024, the MSP for milling copra and ball copra was increased to ₹11,582 and ₹12,100 per quintal, respectively, marking a 121% and 120% rise since 2014.
• This move ensures better returns for coconut farmers and boosts production for growing domestic and global demand.

4) Launch of National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF)

• Approved on November 25, 2024, NMNF is a standalone centrally sponsored scheme under the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare, with an outlay of ₹2,481 crore (GoI share: ₹1,584 crore, State share: ₹897 crore).
• NMNF promotes chemical-free farming based on traditional practices, aiming to enhance soil health, biodiversity, and climate resilience while reducing dependence on fertilizers and pesticides.

5) Launch of PM Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (PM-RKVY) and Krishonnati Yojana (KY)

• On October 3, 2024, the Cabinet approved the rationalization of centrally sponsored schemes into two umbrella programs:

1) PM-RKVY: Focuses on sustainable agriculture.

2) Krishonnati Yojana (KY): Addresses food security and agricultural self-sufficiency.

• Together, they will be implemented with a total outlay of ₹1,01,321.61 crore (Central: ₹69,088.98 crore, State: ₹32,232.63 crore).

6) Approval of National Mission on Edible Oils – Oilseeds (NMEO-Oilseeds)

• Approved on October 3, 2024, NMEO-Oilseeds aims to boost domestic oilseed production and achieve self-reliance in edible oils.
• With an outlay of ₹10,103 crore (2024-31), the mission targets increasing oilseed production from 39 million tonnes (2022-23) to 69.7 million tonnes by 2030-31, ensuring 72% of domestic edible oil requirements are met.

Welfare Schemes for Agriculture, Dairying, and Animal Husbandry

1) Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN)

• Launched in 2019, this income support scheme provides ₹6,000 annually in three installments. Over ₹3.46 lakh crore has been disbursed to 11 crore farmers.
• The 19th installment, released on February 24, 2025, benefited 9.8 crore farmers, including 2.41 crore women, with direct transfers of over ₹22,000 crore.

2) Pradhan Mantri Kisan Maandhan Yojana (PMKMY)

• A voluntary pension scheme for small and marginal farmers (aged 18-40), offering a ₹3,000 monthly pension post-60 years. Over 24.67 lakh farmers have enrolled.

3) Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY)

• Since its launch in 2016, PMFBY has enrolled 63.11 crore farmer applications, with ₹1,65,149 crore in claims paid against ₹32,482 crore in farmer premiums—ensuring a fivefold return on premium payments.

4) National Livestock Mission (NLM)

• Aims to boost employment, entrepreneurship, and productivity in meat, goat milk, egg, and wool production. The 2024-25 outlay is ₹324 crore.

5) Animal Husbandry Infrastructure Development Fund (AHIDF)

• Encourages investments in dairy processing, meat production, breed improvement, and veterinary infrastructure. The revised outlay, including the Dairy Infrastructure Development Fund (DIDF), is now ₹29,610 crore.

6) National Animal Disease Control Programme (NADCP)

• Launched in 2019, NADCP aims to eradicate Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) and Brucellosis by 2030. Over 99.71 crore vaccinations have been administered, benefiting 7.18 crore farmers.

Conclusion

• The government’s recent policy decisions and budgetary allocations focus on modernizing agriculture, enhancing sustainability, and improving farmers’ livelihoods.
• Investments in insurance schemes, MSP hikes, self-sufficiency in edible oils, and natural farming reflect a strategic approach to ensuring long-term growth in agriculture, dairying, and animal husbandry.

5) The Shift in Tiger Trafficking Routes and the Struggles of Wildlife Enforcement

GS 3: Environment and Biodiversity: Need for strict tiger protection

Why is it in the news?

• For decades, tiger poachers in India preferred the shortest routes to China via Nepal and Tibet, while rhino horn smugglers used the northeastern corridor through Myanmar. However, since the 1990s, periodic seizures of pangolin scales in Meghalaya and Mizoram hinted at wildlife contraband moving from central India through the northeast.
• A significant shift occurred just before the Covid-19 pandemic when tiger traders realigned their supply chains towards Myanmar. Despite this, enforcement agencies struggled to keep pace, allowing the illegal trade to grow.
• By 2022, tiger bone and skin consignments were moving frequently through Myanmar, but authorities only started making major arrests in mid-2023. By January 2025, as an investigating officer noted, “the damage was done.”

Rising Tiger Poaching and Lack of Coordination

• Following the extinction of tigers in Rajasthan’s Sariska Reserve by 2005, the government strengthened anti-poaching measures by creating the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) and the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) in 2007.
• Previously, the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) handled major wildlife cases, but even after WCCB’s formation, multiple agencies, including the Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI), continued working in isolation.
• State forest departments also rarely coordinated their investigations despite poaching networks operating across multiple states. Only in rare cases, such as recent linkages between poaching incidents in Assam and Maharashtra, has such collaboration occurred.

Weak Enforcement and Limited Manpower

• The WCCB, the government’s primary agency for tackling wildlife crime, suffers from serious manpower shortages. Of its sanctioned strength of 109 personnel, 26 posts remain vacant, including four out of ten wildlife inspector positions. These wildlife inspectors are crucial as they are the only personnel trained in wildlife crime investigation.
• However, the lack of career growth prospects makes it difficult to fill vacancies. WCCB inspectors, mostly drawn from paramilitary forces on three-year deputations, lack specialized knowledge.

Political Apathy and International Smuggling Networks

• Despite rising poaching incidents, there is limited political will to strengthen enforcement. Domestic coordination among agencies is poor, making international cooperation with Nepal, China, and Myanmar even more challenging.
• A former CBI officer highlighted the systemic failure, saying, “Governments do not take wildlife crime seriously enough, leading to inadequate resources and a restricted mandate.”
• Additionally, NGOs that once actively supported anti-poaching efforts have been less responsive in recent years, creating a vacuum that allowed organized crime networks to thrive.

Shifting Smuggling Hubs and Routes

• Traditionally, smuggling hubs in Delhi, Lucknow, and Kanpur facilitated wildlife trafficking, with Nepalese and Tibetan nationals collaborating with Indian poachers. Key transit points included the Mahakali-Darchula border in Uttarakhand, the Sunauli-Belahiya border in Uttar Pradesh, and the Siliguri corridor in West Bengal.
• From Nepal, traders used multiple routes to reach Tibet, including Taklakot, Gyirong, and Tatopani. Some consignments also moved directly from India to Tibet through Shimla and Ladakh.
• While reports of smuggling through China’s Yunnan province existed earlier, the Myanmar route became a primary channel post-pandemic, with wildlife contraband reaching China via Vietnam and possibly Laos.

Low Conviction Rates and Need for Stronger Measures

• Enforcement agencies continue to struggle in securing convictions. During previous tiger poaching waves (1992-94 and 2003-05), the Wildlife Protection Society of India (WPSI) tracked over 1,400 individuals involved in the tiger and leopard trade, but only 14 were convicted and sentenced.
• While some states have improved conviction rates, prosecution remains sluggish elsewhere. Many offenders re-enter the trade upon release, as poaching is often a generational occupation. Hence, breaking this cycle requires strong political backing, sustained enforcement, and constant vigilance.

6) Rajasthan’s Coaching Centre Bill: Key Provisions and Criticism

GS 2: Polity and Governance: Regulating coaching centres in Rajasthan

Why is it in the news?

• The Rajasthan Legislative Assembly has introduced the Rajasthan Coaching Centres (Control and Regulation) Bill, 2025, aimed at regulating coaching institutes. Cities like Kota and Jaipur have become high-pressure academic hubs for competitive exam aspirants, leading to demands for regulation.
• Over the years, rising student suicides have intensified calls for intervention. However, the Bill has drawn criticism for diluting certain provisions from earlier drafts and not fully aligning with Union Education Ministry guidelines.

Objectives of the Bill

• The government states that the Bill seeks to curb the commercialisation of coaching institutes while ensuring student welfare. It mandates minimum quality standards, compulsory registration, and psychological counselling for students.
• The Centre’s January 2024 guidelines proposed penalties of Rs 25,000 for first-time violations and Rs 1 lakh for a second offence, followed by cancellation of registration for further breaches.
• The Rajasthan Bill, however, has stricter penalties—Rs 2 lakh for the first violation and Rs 5 lakh for the second, followed by cancellation of registration.
• Unlike earlier drafts, the tabled Bill removes the age restriction for enrolment. The previous draft had specified that only students aged 16 or those who completed secondary school could join coaching centres. The omission of this clause benefits coaching centres, especially in Kota, which has faced declining enrolments due to concerns over student suicides and competition from emerging coaching hubs.

Other major differences include:

• Biometric Attendance: The earlier draft required biometric attendance using face recognition and mandated that parents be informed if a student remained absent for more than two days without notice. The final Bill does not include this provision.
• Holiday Regulations: A previous draft required coaching centres to follow state orders on national, local, and festival holidays. The final Bill only suggests that leaves coincide with festivals but removes mention of national and local holidays.
• Non-Discrimination Clause: The Centre’s guidelines mandated that coaching institutes should not discriminate against students based on religion, caste, sex, place of birth, or descent. This clause was present in earlier drafts but has been omitted in the Bill.
• Inclusion of Vulnerable Groups: The earlier draft encouraged coaching centres to ensure greater representation of female and differently abled students and mandated compliance with the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016. These provisions have been removed in the final Bill.

Criticisms

• Parents’ associations have raised concerns about the Bill’s lack of provisions to penalise coaching centres in student suicide cases and the absence of measures to regulate arbitrary fees.
• Sanyukta Abhibhavak Sangh, a parents’ organisation, criticised the Bill, alleging that it was drafted under the influence of coaching centres. Moreover, it demanded the formation of a committee to regulate coaching fees.

7) International Day of Forests 2025: India’s Integrated Vision for Forests, Food, and Sustainability

GS 3: Environment and Biodiversity: Recognizing the importance of forests

Context

• Forests are essential for sustaining life, providing oxygen, food, medicine, and livelihoods to millions. They play a crucial role in global food security by offering resources like fruits, seeds, roots, and wild meat, which support indigenous and rural communities.
• The International Day of Forests (IDF) is observed annually on March 21 to recognize the importance of forests and trees and to encourage global action for their protection.

Significance of the International Day of Forests

• In 2012, the United Nations declared March 21 as the International Day of Forests to raise awareness about the vital role forests play in ecological balance and human well-being.
• Each year, the Collaborative Partnership on Forests selects a theme for the event. The theme for 2025, “Forests and Food,” highlights the strong link between forests and global food security.

India’s Commitment to Forest Conservation

• In India, forests are deeply connected to the country’s culture, economy, and biodiversity. Protecting them is not just an environmental priority but also a fundamental responsibility.
• To strengthen this commitment, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, along with other related ministries, has launched multiple schemes linking forests to food security, nutrition, and livelihoods.

National Agroforestry Policy

• Agroforestry is a sustainable land-use system that integrates trees and crops to improve soil fertility, enhance agricultural productivity, and provide farmers with an additional income source. Recognizing its benefits, the Government of India introduced the National Agroforestry Policy in 2014 to promote tree plantations on farmland.

Objectives of the Scheme

• The National Agroforestry Scheme aims to encourage farmers to adopt agroforestry practices for climate resilience, environmental conservation, and economic sustainability.

Implementation Strategy

• The scheme focuses on the production and distribution of Quality Planting Material (QPM) through nurseries and tissue culture units. The ICAR-Central Agroforestry Research Institute (CAFRI) serves as the nodal agency, providing technical support, certification, and training.
• The program is implemented in collaboration with institutions such as ICFRE, CSIR, ICRAF, and state agricultural universities.

Market and Economic Support

• To make agroforestry profitable, the scheme provides price guarantees and buy-back options for farm-grown trees. It also promotes private sector participation in marketing and processing agroforestry products.
• Additionally, agroforestry aligns with India’s efforts to promote millets, as these crops thrive in tree-based farming systems.

Funding and Support Interventions

• The government offers financial assistance for setting up nurseries and conducting research projects to strengthen agroforestry initiatives across the country.

Green India Mission: Restoring and Enhancing India’s Forest Cover

• The Green India Mission (GIM), also known as the National Mission for a Green India, is a key component of India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). As one of the eight missions under NAPCC, it aims to protect, restore, and expand forest cover while addressing climate change.
• GIM enhances biodiversity, water resources, and ecosystems such as mangroves and wetlands, contributing to carbon sequestration. The mission officially commenced in FY 2015-16.

Mission Goals

• Expand forest and tree cover by 5 million hectares (mha) and improve the quality of another 5 mha of forest and non-forest land.
• Enhance ecosystem services, including carbon storage, water management, and biodiversity conservation.
• Improve livelihoods for 3 million households by promoting income-generating forest-based activities.

Sub-Missions under GIM

GIM comprises five sub-missions, each focusing on different aspects of afforestation and conservation:

• Enhancing Forest Cover – Improving forest quality and ecosystem services.
• Ecosystem Restoration – Reforestation and expansion of forest cover.
• Urban Greening – Increasing tree cover in cities and surrounding areas.
• Agroforestry & Social Forestry – Enhancing biomass and developing carbon sinks.
• Wetland Restoration – Reviving critical wetland ecosystems.

Ecosystem Services Improvement Project (ESIP)

• Under GIM, the Ecosystem Services Improvement Project (ESIP) is being implemented in Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh with World Bank support. This project aims to strengthen ecosystem services, ensuring sustainable forest management and conservation.
• Funding and Implementation
• As of July 2024, the government has allocated ₹909.82 crores to 17 states and one Union Territory for afforestation and eco-restoration over 155,130 hectares. In Maharashtra’s Palghar district, 464.20 hectares in the Dahanu Division have been covered under GIM for plantation and ecological restoration.

Forest Fire Prevention & Management Scheme

• The Forest Fire Prevention & Management Scheme is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme that aids states and Union Territories in preventing and controlling forest fires. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change provides financial assistance for fire prevention measures.

Forest Fire Detection and Monitoring

• India has a forest fire detection system managed by the Forest Survey of India (FSI), Dehradun, which uses remote sensing technology for near real-time fire detection and alerts. A Crisis Management Group, chaired by the Secretary (EF&CC), oversees responses to forest fire emergencies.

Objectives of the Scheme

• Reduce forest fire incidents and restore productivity in affected areas.
• Involve local communities in forest protection.
• Maintain environmental stability through fire prevention measures.
• Develop a fire danger rating system and forecasting methods.
• Utilize modern technologies like Remote Sensing, GPS, and GIS for fire prevention.
• Improve knowledge about the impact and behavior of forest fires.

Implementation Strategy

• Following recommendations from the Parliamentary Committee and National Green Tribunal (NGT), the Ministry developed the National Action Plan on Forest Fire. This plan was formulated through a World Bank study and consultations with State Forest Departments and the National Disaster Management Authority.
• The Forest Fire Monitoring and Alert System, developed by FSI, provides satellite-based fire alerts via SMS and email to registered users, ensuring quick response and efficient fire management.

Van Dhan Yojana: Empowering Tribal Communities through Forest Resources

• Launched in 2018 by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs and TRIFED, the Pradhan Mantri Van Dhan Yojana (PMVDY) aims to uplift tribal communities by enhancing the value of forest produce. The scheme supports tribal gatherers in becoming entrepreneurs through skill training, infrastructure support, and market linkages.

Formation of Van Dhan Vikas Kendras (VDVKs)

• Under PMVDY, Van Dhan Vikas Kendras (VDVKs) are established, each comprising 300 members from 15 Self-Help Groups (SHGs). These Kendras serve as processing and marketing hubs for Minor Forest Produce (MFPs), ensuring better value realization for tribal products.

Financial Support and Implementation

• The scheme is centrally funded, with ₹15 lakh allocated per Kendra. Tribal members contribute ₹1,000 each to foster a sense of ownership. Additionally, the government provides support for branding, packaging, and global market access to promote tribal products.

Two-Stage Implementation Strategy

• Stage I – Establishment of 6,000 Kendras across tribal districts with basic facilities for processing and marketing.
• Stage II – Scaling up successful Kendras with advanced infrastructure, including storage and processing units.

Impact and Benefits

• PMVDY has contributed to sustainable livelihoods, promoted forest conservation, reduced tribal migration, and strengthened India’s tribal economy. By fostering community-driven entrepreneurship, the scheme plays a key role in tribal development.

Conclusion

• India’s dedication to forest conservation and sustainable development is reflected in key initiatives like the National Agroforestry Policy, Green India Mission, Forest Fire Prevention & Management Scheme, and Van Dhan Yojana.
• These programs not only restore and protect forest ecosystems but also enhance livelihoods, boost climate resilience, and improve food security.
• On International Day of Forests 2025, it is essential to reaffirm our commitment to preserving forests as vital resources for future generations. By integrating conservation efforts with community participation and sustainable policies, India continues to pave the way for a greener, healthier, and more prosperous future.

8) Swift Justice, Safer Society: The Impact of Fast Track Special Courts

GS 2: Polity and Governance: Effectiveness of FTSCs

Context

• Fast Track Special Courts (FTSCs) have significantly expedited legal proceedings in cases of rape and offenses under the POCSO Act, ensuring justice for survivors of sexual crimes. With an impressive disposal rate of 96.28%, FTSCs have addressed case backlogs effectively. In 2024 alone, 88,902 new cases were instituted, while 85,595 cases were resolved.
• These courts reaffirm the government’s commitment to justice, women’s safety, and reducing the trauma faced by survivors. The scheme has been extended until 2026 with a financial outlay of ₹1952.23 crore under the Nirbhaya Fund.

Need for FTSCs

• Despite having a strong legal framework, rape and POCSO Act cases continue to accumulate in various courts, leading to delays in justice. The deterrence effect of strict punishment relies on the timely completion of trials.
• Although the Criminal Procedure Code (CrPC) and POCSO Act prescribe specific timelines for investigations and trials, delays persist due to case backlogs and limited judicial resources.
• Recognizing this issue, the Supreme Court of India, in Suo Motu Writ issued directives on July 25, 2019, emphasizing speedy disposal of POCSO Act cases.
• To implement these directions and the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2018, the government launched the FTSC Scheme on October 2, 2019, setting up specialized courts to fast-track rape and POCSO cases.

Progress of the FTSC Scheme

• The Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) of FTSCs, managed by the Department of Justice, Ministry of Law & Justice, aims to support State Governments in establishing FTSCs nationwide.
• Under the scheme, 790 FTSCs (including exclusive e-POCSO Courts) are planned. Each FTSC is expected to dispose of 41-42 cases per quarter and at least 165 cases annually, ensuring timely justice and backlog reduction.
• Currently, 745 FTSCs (including 404 exclusive POCSO Courts) are operational across 30 States and Union Territories. These courts have collectively disposed of over 3,06,604 cases.
• The establishment and functioning of FTSCs are determined by State Governments in consultation with their respective High Courts, based on judicial requirements and available resources.

Financial Framework of FTSCs

• Initially launched for one year, the FTSC Scheme was later extended until March 2023. The Union Cabinet, in its meeting on November 28, 2023, further extended the scheme for three more years (April 1, 2023 – March 31, 2026) with a total financial outlay of ₹1952.23 crore. Out of this, ₹1207.24 crore is the Central Share, funded through the Nirbhaya Fund.
• For the financial year 2024-25, ₹200.00 crore has been fully released as the Central share for FTSCs’ operations across States/UTs.

Cost-Sharing and Funding Mechanism

The FTSC Scheme follows the Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) funding model, with cost-sharing arrangements as follows:

• General Cost-Sharing: 60% Central Government, 40% State/UT Governments.
• For Northeastern, Hilly, and Special Category States (J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Sikkim): 90% Central Government, 10% State Government.
• For Union Territories:

1) UTs with legislatures: 60:40 ratio applies.

2) UTs without legislatures: 100% Central funding.

Utilization of Funds

• The allocated funds cover expenses related to the remuneration of judicial officers and seven support staff, as well as flexi-grants for operational expenses. Flexi-grants are used to maintain child- and women-friendly court environments.
• The scheme operates on a reimbursement model, meaning funds are released only after State/UT Governments submit expenditure statements.

Key Recommendations from the Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA)

• A third-party evaluation of the Fast Track Special Courts (FTSCs) Scheme was conducted by the Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA) in 2023.
• The evaluation strongly recommended the continuation of the scheme, emphasizing its role in handling sexual offenses against women and children through a streamlined and expedited judicial process.

Recommendations by IIPA

• Continuation of the Scheme: IIPA highlighted the critical role of FTSCs in ensuring swift justice for survivors of sexual crimes and recommended its continuation.
• Strengthening Trial Processes: States and High Courts should enhance judicial efficiency by appointing Special Judges with experience in POCSO cases, ensuring sensitization training, and deploying female public prosecutors for better victim support.
• Upgrading Court Infrastructure: Modern technology such as audio and video recording systems, LCD projectors, and electronic case filing should be introduced to enhance digitalization and ensure efficient case management.
• Enhancing Forensic Capabilities: Increasing the number of Forensic Labs and training specialized manpower can expedite pending cases and ensure the timely submission of DNA reports, contributing to fair and speedy justice.
• Establishing Vulnerable Witness Deposition Centres (VWDCs): Every district should have VWDCs to ensure secure and child-friendly victim testimony recording. Trials should be conducted behind closed doors while maintaining the child’s identity. Additionally, child psychologists should assist children through pre-trial and trial procedures.
• Child-Friendly Court Environment: FTSCs should continue their victim-centric approach by setting up VWDCs within courts and transforming them into Child-Friendly Courts to provide compassionate legal support.

Conclusion

• Fast Track Special Courts (FTSCs) have become an integral part of India’s judicial system, ensuring swift justice for victims of heinous crimes. While challenges remain, continuous reforms and infrastructural advancements can further enhance their effectiveness.
• Their role in reducing case backlogs, facilitating expert-guided legal proceedings, and minimizing victims’ trauma reaffirms the government’s commitment to protecting vulnerable groups and upholding justice through a responsive legal framework.

9) Strengthening Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) Mechanisms

GS 2: Polity and Governance: Promoting ADRs

Context

• The government is actively promoting Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) mechanisms such as arbitration and mediation, as they offer less adversarial and more efficient ways to resolve disputes compared to conventional litigation.
• To enhance the effectiveness of these mechanisms, several policy and legislative measures have been introduced over the years, aiming to make dispute resolution more streamlined and expeditious.

Amendments to the Arbitration and Conciliation Act

• The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996, has been progressively amended in 2015, 2019, and 2020 to align with global best practices and establish arbitration as a viable dispute resolution mechanism.
• These amendments focus on ensuring the timely conclusion of arbitration proceedings, maintaining the neutrality of arbitrators, minimizing judicial intervention, and ensuring the effective enforcement of arbitral awards.
• Additionally, the amendments promote institutional arbitration, fostering an ecosystem where arbitral institutions can be established and strengthened.

Pre-Institution Mediation and Settlement (PIMS)

• To encourage mediation as a preferred dispute resolution method, the Commercial Courts Act, 2015, was amended in 2018 to introduce the Pre-Institution Mediation and Settlement (PIMS) mechanism.
• Under this provision, in commercial disputes of a specified value where no urgent interim relief is sought, parties must first attempt mediation before approaching the courts.
• This ensures that disputes are given an opportunity to be resolved amicably, reducing the burden on courts and promoting faster dispute resolution.

Establishment of the India International Arbitration Centre

• The India International Arbitration Centre Act, 2019, was enacted to create an independent and world-class institution for facilitating institutional arbitration in the country. Recognized as an institution of national importance, the Centre aims to provide a neutral platform for resolving both domestic and international commercial disputes.
• The Centre has introduced the India International Arbitration Centre (Conduct of Arbitration) Regulations, 2023, to streamline arbitration proceedings, ensuring efficiency and time-bound resolution. Additionally, the Chamber of Arbitration, established under Section 28 of the Act, continues to empanel reputed arbitrators to strengthen both domestic and international arbitration frameworks.

The Mediation Act, 2023

• The Mediation Act, 2023, provides a comprehensive legislative framework for mediation, encouraging disputing parties to resolve conflicts amicably, particularly through institutional mediation.
• This Act marks a significant step in fostering a culture of out-of-court settlements, reducing litigation burdens, and ensuring faster resolution of disputes.

Training and Capacity Building in ADR

• Section 15 of the India International Arbitration Centre Act, 2019, mandates the Centre to conduct training in ADR mechanisms, including arbitration, conciliation, and mediation.
• To fulfil this objective, the Centre has been actively organizing conferences, seminars, and training programs for professionals, stakeholders, and both public and private entities. These initiatives aim to build expertise in ADR, improving the overall efficiency of dispute resolution mechanisms in India.

Conclusion

• Through continuous legislative reforms and institutional developments, the government is committed to strengthening arbitration and mediation as effective dispute resolution mechanisms.
• By reducing judicial backlog and promoting amicable settlements, these initiatives are paving the way for a robust and efficient alternative dispute resolution ecosystem in India.