1) APAAR ID: Balancing Digital Innovation with Privacy Concerns

Why is it in the news?

• The Ministry of Education has introduced the Automated Permanent Academic Account Registry (APAAR) ID, a digital initiative designed to maintain lifelong academic records for students in India.
• This system aims to create a centralized and verifiable database of educational credentials, ensuring seamless access to academic records across institutions.
• However, concerns over privacy, data security, and enforcement practices have sparked debates on the need for a legal framework before its nationwide implementation.

Concerns Over APAAR Implementation Without Legal Backing

Potential Violation of Privacy Rights

• The right to privacy, as upheld by the Supreme Court in the Puttaswamy judgment (2017), could be compromised if APAAR is imposed without legal safeguards.
• The Supreme Court ruled that Aadhaar cannot be made mandatory for school admissions. Since APAAR is linked to Aadhaar, it raises similar concerns about forced compliance and privacy violations.

Lack of Informed Consent

• Making APAAR enrolment compulsory without clear legal provisions undermines voluntary participation. For instance, in Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka, parents have reported being pressured to register their children, despite official claims that enrolment is optional.

Risk of Data Breaches and Misuse

• A centralized system storing sensitive student data without robust cybersecurity measures increases the risk of unauthorized access and leaks.

Possibility of Discrimination and Exclusion

• Errors in digital records, such as name mismatches or incorrect details, could prevent students from accessing educational benefits due to a lack of mechanisms for correction.
• For instance, issues with DigiLocker registrations due to Aadhaar mismatches have led to failed student verifications. APAAR could face similar technical challenges, leading to exclusion from educational services.

Need for Legislative Oversight

• To ensure transparency, accountability, and data protection, a well-defined legal framework is necessary for APAAR’s implementation.
• Countries such as Germany regulate educational data under GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) to protect individual privacy. India currently lacks similar data security laws for APAAR.

Objectives of the APAAR ID

Digitization of Academic Records

• APAAR aims to create a permanent digital record of students’ academic achievements, ensuring authenticity and reducing the risk of document fraud.

Seamless Access and Transfer of Records

• Students will be able to easily access, share, and transfer their academic credentials between institutions and employers, improving efficiency in admissions and job applications.

Integration with Digital Public Infrastructure

• APAAR aligns with national digital initiatives such as UDISE+ and the Student Database Management System (SDMS), supporting improved educational governance and policy planning.

Facilitating Educational and Career Opportunities

• By digitizing academic records, APAAR seeks to streamline scholarship applications, university admissions, and employment verification, making these processes faster and more transparent.

The Way Forward

Establishing a Legal Framework

• To protect privacy and prevent misuse, the government must enact a comprehensive data protection law for APAAR, ensuring compliance with Supreme Court rulings on privacy and consent.

Ensuring Voluntary and Transparent Implementation

• APAAR enrolment should remain optional, and authorities must communicate its purpose clearly to parents and schools. A grievance redressal mechanism should be established to resolve errors and address concerns efficiently.

2) Tiger Conservation in India

Why is it in the news?

• Madhav National Park in Shivpuri district, Madhya Pradesh, was recently declared a tiger reserve, increasing the total number of such reserves in India to 58. Spread over 1,651 sq km, it currently houses six tigers, including a cub.
• The designation of this new reserve is expected to enhance the movement of tigers in the Ranthambore-Kuno-Madhav National Park corridor, which has been identified as a significant habitat for expanding the tiger population.

Project Tiger: Conservation Efforts Since 1973

• Although hunting big game was historically prevalent among Indian elites, it reached unprecedented levels during British rule and continued even after Independence. The large-scale hunting of tigers, combined with rapid deforestation for agriculture, led to a steep decline in their population.
• By the 1960s, concerns over this decline prompted the Indira Gandhi-led Union government to ban tiger skin exports in 1969.
• That same year, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) recognized tigers as an endangered species at its 10th assembly in Delhi and passed a resolution imposing a moratorium on tiger hunting. The government also established a task force under the Indian Board for Wildlife chairman, Karan Singh, to address the crisis.
• The recommendations of this task force led to the launch of Project Tiger in April 1973, shortly after the enactment of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Initially planned for six years, the project continues to this day with the aim of ensuring a sustainable tiger population and protecting their habitat.

The Purpose of Tiger Reserves

• Project Tiger started with nine reserves, namely Manas (Assam), Jim Corbett (Uttarakhand), Kanha (Madhya Pradesh), Palamau (Jharkhand), Ranthambore (Rajasthan), Simlipal (Odisha), Melghat (Maharashtra), Bandipur (Karnataka), and the Sundarbans (West Bengal). These reserves were designated within existing national parks and received funding through a centrally sponsored scheme.
• The reserves were structured into core and buffer zones. The core area was strictly protected, with no human activities allowed except for conservation efforts, while the buffer zone permitted limited human activity. This framework was highlighted in the 2005 report ‘Joining the Dots’ by the tiger task force under Sunita Narain.
• Following amendments to the Wildlife Protection Act in 2005-06, the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) was created to oversee the implementation of Project Tiger.

Tiger Distribution in India

• According to the 2022-23 population estimation, India has around 3,681 tigers (range: 3,167-3,925), occupying 89,000 sq km—an area comparable to Jordan and larger than Austria. Tigers are distributed across five major landscapes:

1) Shivalik Hills and Gangetic Plains

2) Central Indian Highlands and Eastern Ghats

3) Western Ghats

4) Northeastern Hills and Brahmaputra Floodplains

5) Sundarbans

• The Corbett Tiger Reserve has the highest tiger population at 260, followed by Bandipur (150), Nagarhole (141), Bandhavgarh (135), Dudhwa (135), Mudumalai (113), Kanha (105), Kaziranga (104), Sundarbans (100), Tadoba-Andhari (97), Sathyamangalam (85), and Pench (77).
• Among states, Madhya Pradesh leads with 785 tigers, followed by Karnataka (563), Uttarakhand (560), and Maharashtra (444).
• A recent study (2006-2018) reported a 30% increase in tiger-occupied areas, with approximately six crore people living in 45% of these regions. Interestingly, only 25% of tiger habitats lie within core reserve areas, while buffer zones account for 20%.

Challenges Facing Some Tiger Reserves

• Currently, 26 tiger reserves have over 50 tigers, but the remaining 27 reserves face concerns about low tiger density. As of 2022, 16 reserves had either no tigers, only male populations, or fewer than five tigers. These reserves are primarily in Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Telangana, and Odisha.
• The situation is particularly alarming in Telangana, Odisha, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh, where the tiger population has either stagnated, declined, or gone locally extinct—such as in Satkosia Reserve, Odisha.
• The study pointed to socioeconomic challenges, political instability, insurgencies, mining pressures, infrastructure development, and competition for forest resources as major factors behind this decline.

Conclusion

• The establishment of new tiger reserves, such as Madhav National Park, is crucial for expanding tiger habitats and ensuring their survival. However, many reserves still struggle due to habitat fragmentation, human-wildlife conflict, and conservation challenges.
• A strategic approach that balances conservation with sustainable development is necessary to protect India’s national animal while supporting local communities that coexist with these majestic predators.

3) Elon Musk’s Starlink: Internet from Space

Why is it in the news?

• Bharti Airtel and Reliance Jio have signed distribution agreements with SpaceX’s Starlink to bring satellite internet to India. This marks a shift from the telecom industry’s earlier reluctance to allow Starlink without auctioning satellite spectrum.

What is Starlink?

• Starlink is a network of over 7,000 low-earth orbit satellites providing internet access through ground terminals. Owned by Elon Musk’s SpaceX, it operates in around 40 countries, covering most of the habitable earth.
• The service delivers speeds of approximately 100 Mbps, comparable to home broadband, though it has higher latency than wired connections.
• Starlink functions with ground stations connected to the internet, which then beam signals to satellites. While cities with strong 5G and broadband networks may not benefit significantly, Starlink can provide instant internet access in remote and rural areas where traditional networks are unavailable.

Cost of Starlink Services

• Users must bear two costs: the terminal (router) and the monthly service fee. In the U.S., a residential kit costs $149, while a portable kit is $349. Import duties and taxes in India could increase the hardware cost by 30%, making it range between ₹17,000 and ₹40,000, excluding shipping.
• Monthly plans in the U.S. range from $120 to $165. A higher-tier “mobile priority” plan costs about ₹21,000 per month, offering priority access during congestion. In Bhutan, Starlink is priced between 4,200 to 8,400 ngultrum (₹4,200-₹8,400), indicating potential pricing for India.

Regulatory Hurdles in India

• Starlink faces multiple regulatory challenges in India, largely due to strict internet service regulations.
• The primary hurdle is obtaining a Global Mobile Personal Communications by Satellite (GMPCS) authorisation under the Telecommunications Act, 2023. The government has not yet finalized rules under this Act, creating uncertainty about approvals.
• Additionally, SpaceX had to disclose corporate ownership data to Indian authorities, which it resisted due to investor privacy concerns. Reports indicate this issue has been resolved, but the company still requires security clearance from the Ministry of Home Affairs, which remains pending.
• Another challenge is setting up ground stations in India. The government mandates the installation of tapping equipment to allow law enforcement access, as required for other internet services. The operational status of these stations is currently unclear.

Spectrum Allocation Dispute

• Starlink also requires wireless spectrum allocation. Unlike telecom spectrum, which is auctioned, satellite spectrum is typically shared among providers.
• While India has indicated that it will follow international norms and not auction satellite spectrum, telecom companies—before partnering with Starlink—demanded an auction, citing the Supreme Court’s 2012 ruling in the 2G spectrum case. Reliance Jio has sought legal opinions supporting the auction model, but no final decision has been made.

Impact of U.S. Trade Pressure

• Elon Musk’s growing influence in the U.S. government and potential trade pressure from the Biden administration may accelerate Starlink’s entry into India.
• However, regulatory approvals remain uncertain. While Airtel and Jio have partnered with Starlink for distribution, there are no official announcements regarding regulatory progress.

4) Bharat 6G Alliance

Why is it in the news?

• The Prime Minister has launched the Bharat 6G Vision document, outlining India’s goal to become a global leader in 6G technology development and deployment by 2030.

Bharat 6G Alliance (B6GA)

• The B6GA is a collaborative platform uniting public and private enterprises, academic institutions, research bodies, and standardization organizations to advance India’s 6G ecosystem.

Key Objectives of B6GA

• Global Collaboration: Partner with international 6G alliances to exchange knowledge and best practices.
• India-Specific 6G Applications: Identify and develop industry use cases tailored to India’s socio-economic landscape.
• Cutting-Edge Research & Innovation: Focus on terahertz communication, AI-driven networks, and quantum security.
• Standardization & Spectrum Development: Actively contribute to global 6G standards through engagement with ITU and WRC-27.

Phases of 6G Implementation in India

Phase 1 (2023-2025): Research & Experimentation:

• Conducting exploratory studies on futuristic telecom technologies.
• Developing proof-of-concept solutions in research facilities.
• Investigating innovative and high-risk advancements in wireless communication.

Phase 2 (2025-2030): Commercial Deployment & Innovation:

• Creating intellectual property (IP) rights for India-led 6G innovations.
• Establishing testbeds for large-scale commercialization and deployment of 6G networks.

6G Spectrum and Global Developments

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is evaluating new spectrum bands for 6G, including:

• 4400-4800 MHz
• 7125-8400 MHz
• 8-15.35 GHz
• A final decision on spectrum allocation will be made at the World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC-27). Currently, India operates within the 600 MHz to 26 GHz spectrum range for 2G to 6G services.

5) Menhirs: Ancient Monuments of Human Ingenuity

Why is it in the news?

• The Mudumal megalithic menhirs in Telangana’s Narayanpet district are set to become the second UNESCO World Heritage Site in the state. They were among six Indian sites added to the tentative list by the World Heritage Centre for 2025.

What Are Menhirs?

• A menhir is a large, upright standing stone, often tapered at the top and sculpted by humans. The largest surviving menhir, the Grand Menhir Brisé in Brittany, France, once stood 20.6 meters tall.
• The term ‘menhir’ comes from the Brittonic words “maen” (stone) and “hîr” (long), first used by French antiquarian Théophile Corret de la Tour d’Auvergne in the late 18th century. Popular culture references menhirs in the French comic series Asterix, where Obelix carries them as part of his trade and uses them as weapons against Romans.

Age and Purpose of Menhirs

• Menhirs in Europe are linked to the Beaker culture from the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age (4,800-3,800 BP), though some date back to 7,000 BP. The Mudumal menhirs, dated to 3,500-4,000 BP, are the oldest in India.
• Menhirs may stand alone or as part of a megalithic complex. Their exact purpose is debated, but they were likely used for ceremonial, funerary, or astronomical functions.
• At Mudumal, UNESCO describes them as a “megalithic astronomical observatory”, with some menhirs aligned to the rising and setting sun during summer and winter solstices. Locally, one menhir is worshipped as Goddess Yellamma, linking it to regional traditions.

Why UNESCO Recognition Matters?

Two key reasons justify UNESCO recognition:

• Understanding Early Human Ingenuity: The construction of these massive stone structures required advanced knowledge of physics, engineering, and astronomy. Their precise alignment with solstices shows early humans’ deep understanding of celestial movements.
• Cultural and Historical Significance: These monuments reveal how ancient societies perceived the world. The effort invested in their construction shows their cultural and spiritual importance, offering insights into civilizations that left no written records.

6) Mycelium bricks

Why is it in the news?

• Mycelium bricks, an eco-friendly and biodegradable building material made from fungal filaments, are gaining attention as a sustainable alternative to conventional bricks.
• These lightweight and fire-resistant bricks offer a promising solution for reducing environmental impact in construction.

What Are Mycelium Bricks?

• Mycelium is a dense network of fungal threads (hyphae) that function like plant roots, breaking down organic material to absorb nutrients. Mycelium bricks are produced by combining agricultural waste like sawdust or husk with fungal spores, which bind together over a few days to form a solid, insulating material.
• These bricks are biodegradable, fire-resistant, and offer excellent thermal insulation, making them a potential green alternative in construction.

Advantages of Mycelium Bricks

• Lower Carbon Emissions: Unlike conventional bricks, they do not require high-temperature kilns, significantly cutting down CO₂ emissions.
• Lightweight & Easy Transport: Their reduced weight makes them easier to transport, lowering fuel consumption and logistics costs.
• Superior Insulation: Mycelium provides natural thermal insulation, reducing energy needs for heating and cooling buildings.
• Biodegradable & Zero Waste: These bricks decompose naturally, eliminating construction waste and promoting sustainability.
• Wide Applications: Beyond construction, they can be used in interior panelling, liquid filtration, circuit boards, and even sports equipment.

Challenges Hindering Large-Scale Use

• Lower Structural Strength: While strong for their weight, mycelium bricks are 100 times weaker than concrete, limiting their use in load-bearing structures.
• Moisture Sensitivity: High absorbency makes them prone to fungal decay and water damage, particularly in humid conditions.
• Limited Durability: Unlike traditional bricks, mycelium biodegrades within a few years, raising concerns over its long-term structural reliability.

7) Mercury Soaring: Understanding Heatwaves in India

Why is it in the news?

• India is experiencing intense heat, with the IMD issuing heatwave warnings for Odisha, Jharkhand, and Gangetic West Bengal. Interior Odisha, south Rajasthan, and north Gujarat are also likely to face extreme temperatures.
• Heatwave alerts have been issued for parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, and Maharashtra. In Jharkhand, temperatures have crossed 40°C in several districts, while Karnataka’s health minister has urged people to stay indoors during peak hours.

What is a Heatwave?

• A heatwave is a period of unusually high temperatures in a region. The threshold for declaring a heatwave depends on the typical temperature of that area during a particular season. For instance, what qualifies as a heatwave in Kerala may not be considered the same in Odisha due to regional climate variations.

How is a Heatwave Declared?

• According to the IMD, a heatwave is declared when the maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 40°C in plains and 30°C in hilly areas.
• Based on temperature deviation from normal, a heatwave is recorded when the departure is between 4.5°C and 6.4°C. If the deviation exceeds 6.4°C, it is categorized as a severe heatwave.
• Alternatively, based on actual maximum temperature, a heatwave is declared when the temperature exceeds 45°C, and a severe heatwave when it surpasses 47°C. Additionally, if these criteria are met in at least two stations within a meteorological subdivision for two consecutive days, the heatwave is officially declared on the second day.
• In coastal areas, a heatwave is declared when the maximum temperature departs by 4.5°C or more from normal and reaches at least 37°C.

When Do Heatwaves Occur?

• In India, heatwaves primarily occur between March and June, occasionally extending into July.
• Their impact is worsened by high humidity, which prevents sweat from evaporating efficiently, and by elevated nighttime temperatures, which hinder the body’s ability to recover from daytime heat.

How Does IMD Measure Heatwave Conditions?

• The IMD maintains a vast network of surface observatories across the country to measure meteorological parameters such as temperature, humidity, air pressure, wind speed, and direction.
• Using daily maximum temperature data from 1991-2020, the IMD determines the normal maximum temperature for each station. If temperatures exceed these thresholds based on predefined criteria, a heatwave is officially declared.