1) Immigration and Foreigners Bill, 2025

GS 2: Polity and Governance: Addressing immigration

Why is it in the news?

• The Union government introduced the Immigration and Foreigners Bill, 2025, in the Lok Sabha, aiming to strengthen border security and streamline immigration laws.
• The Bill replaces the Immigration (Carriers’ Liability) Act, 2000, along with three pre-independence laws: the Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920, the Registration of Foreigners Act, 1939, and the Foreigners Act, 1936.
• The government justifies this move by stating that these laws were enacted during extraordinary times like the World Wars and that a comprehensive legal framework is now needed to address immigration effectively.

Establishment of Bureau of Immigration

• The Bill proposes the formation of a Bureau of Immigration under the central government, headed by a Commissioner. This Bureau will regulate the entry and exit of foreigners and oversee immigration functions.
• Assisting the Commissioner will be Foreigners Regional Registration Officers, Foreigners Registration Officers, Chief Immigration Officers, and other designated officers.

Regulations on Foreigners

• The Bill empowers the Centre to impose various restrictions on foreigners in India. Foreigners may be required to enter and exit through designated routes, reside in specific areas, or leave the country if ordered.
• They must present themselves for examination, furnish proof of identity, submit biometric data, undergo medical tests, and comply with restrictions on association, activities, and possession of certain items.
• Additionally, those residing in designated areas must follow regulations regarding maintenance, discipline, and punishment.

Penalties for Violations

• Foreigners overstaying their visa or violating directives under Section 7 face imprisonment of up to three years and fines up to ₹3 lakh. Unauthorized entry into restricted areas without valid documents attracts imprisonment of up to five years and a fine of up to ₹5 lakh.
• Using forged or fraudulently obtained travel documents or visas carries a penalty of two to seven years in prison and a fine between ₹1 lakh and ₹10 lakh.
• Educational and medical institutions admitting foreigners must provide relevant information to authorities.

Restrictions on Carriers

• The Bill also introduces obligations for carriers—businesses involved in transporting passengers or cargo. They must share passenger and crew details with immigration officers or local authorities and ensure the removal of foreigners denied entry. Failure to comply can result in penalties of up to ₹50,000.
• The Centre is also empowered to regulate premises frequented by foreigners, with provisions to shut down or impose restrictions on such places.

Criticism of the Bill

• The Bill has faced criticism for potentially violating fundamental rights, as it lacks an appeal mechanism against immigration officers’ decisions, which goes against principles of natural justice.
• Concerns have also been raised that it could restrict the inflow of talent and expertise in academic and medical fields. Additionally, critics fear that its provisions may be misused to deny entry to individuals based on ideological considerations.

2) National Board for Wildlife (NBWL)

GS 3: Environment and Biodiversity: Wildlife Conservation

Why is it in the news?

• More than a decade after assuming office, PM Narendra Modi chaired his first meeting of the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) on March 3, World Wildlife Day. The meeting took place at Gir National Park in Gujarat and reviewed key wildlife conservation programs.
• New initiatives for gharial and Great Indian Bustard conservation were announced, along with the expansion of Project Cheetah and Project Lion. The last full-body NBWL meeting was held on September 5, 2012, under then PM Manmohan Singh. The Prime Minister serves as the ex officio chairperson of the NBWL.

What is the National Board for Wildlife?

• The present-day NBWL was established in 2003 through an amendment to The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. It replaced the Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL), which was formed in 1952.
• The restructuring aimed to strengthen its regulatory role in implementing the Wild Life Protection Act. The NBWL is India’s apex body for wildlife policy, conservation efforts, and recommendations for establishing new national parks and sanctuaries.
• The board consists of 47 members, with the Prime Minister as chairperson and the Union environment minister as vice-chairperson. Other members include the Chief of the Army Staff, secretaries from various ministries, three Lok Sabha MPs, one Rajya Sabha MP, and the Director General of Forests.
• Additionally, ten eminent conservationists, ecologists, and environmentalists, along with five representatives from the non-governmental sector, are part of the board.
• The NBWL has a standing committee responsible for appraising projects within protected areas and surrounding regions. Its decisions are advisory, and the environment ministry has the authority to overrule them.

Controversies and Criticism of NBWL

• In the past decade, NBWL has approved several development projects in and around wildlife habitats, sparking protests from ecologists.
• Controversial projects include the Ken-Betwa River linking project’s Daudhan Dam, which will submerge nearly 100 sq km of Panna National Park, and Vedanta’s oil exploration project in the eco-sensitive Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary, home to India’s only ape species, the endangered Hoolock Gibbon.
• Additionally, in 2021, the Galathea Bay Sanctuary in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a crucial nesting site for leatherback sea turtles, was de-notified.
• After the Current government came to power in 2014, NBWL was restructured. Only three non-governmental members were appointed, one being the Gujarat Ecological Education and Research Foundation (GEER), an autonomous body under the Gujarat government. This raised concerns about dilution of independent voices.
• In contrast, the previous UPA-era standing committee had seven non-governmental members, including four conservation experts and three NGO representatives. Since 2014, the standing committee has held 50 meetings without the required number of conservation experts.
• Modi’s Gir meeting was the 7th full-body NBWL meeting, while the previous six were mostly chaired by Manmohan Singh, with the first one held under Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 2003.

Evolution of NBWL: From IBWL to Present

• NBWL evolved from the Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL), which was originally established as the Central Board for Wildlife in March 1952. The first IBWL meeting was held at Lalitha Mahal Palace, Mysore, from November 24 to December 1, 1952. It was formed to address the decline in wildlife populations, and its first chairman was Maharaja Jayachamaraja Wadiyar of Mysore.
• During the first IBWL meeting, the board split into four committees focusing on national parks, wildlife trade, legislation, and administration. The Mysore royal continued as chairman through the 1950s and 1960s. A crucial IBWL meeting in 1961 declared the peacock as India’s national bird.
• Under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, IBWL played a pivotal role in conservation efforts, supporting the enactment of the Wild Life Protection Act, 1972, the establishment of Gir National Park for Asiatic Lions, and the declaration of the tiger as India’s national animal.
• The Act provided legal backing for wildlife conservation, banned hunting of endangered species, and regulated wildlife trade, laying the groundwork for Project Tiger in 1973.
• IBWL was reconstituted in June 1969, with Karan Singh, then Union Minister of Tourism and Civil Aviation, appointed as chairman. He remained in the position until 1977. Indira Gandhi later took over as chairperson until her assassination in 1984.
• During this period, key milestones included the establishment of Keoladeo National Park in Rajasthan (1982) and the adoption of the National Wildlife Action Plan (1983).
• Between 1988 and 1997, no IBWL meetings were held. When PM H.D. Deve Gowda chaired an IBWL meeting on March 13, 1997, key issues like tiger conservation and control of poaching were discussed.
• In May 1997, then Environment Minister Saifuddin Soz stated in Lok Sabha that the long gap in meetings was due to delays in member appointments and ministerial changes.
• Meetings chaired by Manmohan Singh saw the creation of the Tiger Task Force in March 2005, in response to increasing poaching and local tiger extinctions. This strengthened tiger conservation efforts nationwide.

Conclusion

• PM Modi’s first NBWL meeting has reignited discussions on wildlife conservation policies and their implementation. While the board plays a critical role in protecting India’s wildlife, its decisions have often faced scrutiny over developmental clearances.
• Strengthening its regulatory function with independent voices and scientific expertise will be crucial for balancing conservation and development.

3) Neural Networks and Their Significance

GS 3: Science and Technology: Understanding Neural Networks

Why is it in the news?

• The rapid development of artificial intelligence (AI) is often accompanied by complex terminology such as neural networks, algorithms, and large language models (LLMs). Understanding these terms is essential to keeping up with AI advancements.

What Are Neural Networks?

• Neural networks, or artificial neural networks (ANNs), are computational models that help computers process data by mimicking the human brain. They are a subset of machine learning (ML) and play a crucial role in AI applications.
• The concept of ANNs dates back to the late 1950s when psychologist Frank Rosenblatt developed the perceptron—an early AI model inspired by how neurons transmit signals in the human brain.
• In the human brain, neurons send and receive signals to control various functions like movement, breathing, and thinking. As Melanie Mitchell explains in Artificial Intelligence: A Guide for Thinking Humans, neurons sum up inputs from other neurons, and if the total reaches a certain threshold, they “fire” a signal. The strength of connections between neurons determines the impact of each input.
• Rosenblatt’s perceptron functioned similarly, receiving numerical inputs, assigning them weights, and producing an output based on whether the weighted sum met a threshold. This yes-or-no decision-making process allowed the perceptron to learn from data and improve its accuracy.

How Do Neural Networks Work?

• Neural networks are advanced extensions of perceptrons, consisting of multiple layers of artificial neurons called nodes. A typical neural network has three main layers:

1) Input Layer: Receives and processes raw data.

2) Hidden Layer(s): Further refines the data, applying mathematical computations to detect patterns.

3) Output Layer: Produces the final result based on the processed data.

• Each node in these layers has an associated weight and threshold. If a node’s output surpasses the threshold, it activates and sends data to the next layer. Otherwise, it does not pass the information forward.
• This layered structure allows neural networks to recognize complex relationships in data. They require extensive training with large datasets to perform tasks such as classification and prediction. Once fine-tuned, they become powerful tools in AI applications.

Why Are Neural Networks Significant?

• Neural networks enable AI systems to make independent decisions with minimal human intervention. They excel at modelling complex and nonlinear relationships between inputs and outputs, making them valuable in natural language processing, image recognition, and predictive analytics.
• For example, neural networks can differentiate between similar yet distinct sentences:

1) “Where can I buy a new pair of sneakers?”

2) “Where can I find quality snowshoes?”

• Despite their similarity, these sentences require different responses. Neural networks allow AI to understand context and take appropriate actions. However, training these networks requires significant effort.

Conclusion

• Neural networks form the foundation of modern AI by enabling machines to learn from data, recognize patterns, and make intelligent decisions.
• Their ability to process complex information with minimal human supervision makes them essential for AI advancements. As research in this field progresses, neural networks will continue to shape the future of AI applications.

4) Evolving Policies for Muslim Empowerment in India: A Critical Assessment

GS 2: Polity and Governance: Status of Muslim Community inclusion

Context

• The socio-economic backwardness of India’s Muslim community emerged as a policy concern with the introduction of several government initiatives. In June 2006, the UPA government launched the Prime Minister’s 15-Point Program for Minorities, focusing on minority-centric policies.
• Earlier, in 2004 and 2005, the government had set up the National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities (Justice Ranganath Misra Commission) and the High-Level Committee on the Socio-Economic and Educational Status of Muslims (Justice Rajinder Sachar Committee).
• Both committees, in their reports submitted in 2006 and 2007, identified Muslims as a marginalized community requiring affirmative action.
• Over time, various policy measures were introduced for Muslim upliftment. In 2013, the Post-Sachar Evaluation Committee, led by Prof. Amitabh Kundu of Jawaharlal Nehru University, was established to assess the implementation of the Sachar Committee’s recommendations and the Prime Minister’s 15-Point Program. The committee submitted its report in 2014.
• After the BJP-led NDA government took office in 2014, it adopted the Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas approach, restructuring policies under the Ministry of Minority Affairs. Post-2014, Muslim empowerment was integrated into broader social welfare frameworks rather than being treated as an exclusive concern.

Contemporary Assessment of Affirmative Action

The latest report on affirmative action for Muslims is structured around four key themes.

• First, it examines the evolving nature of state policies on social welfare, describing the government as a ‘charitable state.’
• Second, it critically analyzes contemporary policy frameworks and their impact on Muslims, using official documents from NITI Aayog.
• Third, it evaluates the economic and educational status of Muslims based on official data from various sources.
• Finally, it explores the perceptions, expectations, and concerns of Muslims regarding their socio-economic marginalization, using data from the CSDS-Lokniti archive.

Educational Status of Muslims

• Despite improvements, Muslim children remain the least likely to progress to higher education. While school participation has increased, Muslim youth continue to have the lowest post-secondary education rates among all socio-religious groups (SRGs). The proportion of Muslim graduates remains small.
• Although Muslim students have slightly better access to private schooling than Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs), they lag behind Hindu Forward Castes (HFCs) and Hindu Other Backward Classes (HOBCs).
• Even after adjusting for household characteristics and residence location, this gap persists. In higher education, Muslims are less likely to opt for technical, professional, or management courses compared to SCs, HOBCs, and HFCs.

Muslim Representation in the Job Market

• Muslims continue to face material deprivation in terms of consumption levels and asset ownership. Other disadvantaged SRGs have shown upward mobility in employment, but the progress for Muslims has been minimal. Their overall job market position has remained stagnant compared to HFCs.
• While higher education helps Muslims access regular salaried jobs, they remain underrepresented in white-collar occupations. The gap between Muslims and HFCs in securing high-paying jobs has not significantly improved.

Policy Recommendations

• The report proposes two guiding principles for revised affirmative action: stronger secularization of social policies and a positive, non-discriminatory portrayal of Muslim identity. Based on this, it makes seven key recommendations.

1) Reforming the OBC Quota – Instead of a religion-based quota under OBC, a rational, secular sub-categorization of OBCs is necessary.

2) Inclusion of Dalit Muslims and Christians in SC Category – The SC list should include Dalit Muslims and Dalit Christians.

3) Re-evaluation of the Reservation Cap – The 50% cap on reservations should be reconsidered to accommodate new backward communities.

4) Localized Approach to Affirmative Action – The study highlights the convergence of the Transformation of Aspirational Districts Programme (TADP) and Minority Concentration Districts (MCD). A space-centric approach should be the basis for local welfare programs.

5) Addressing Muslim-Dominated Occupations – A proactive policy is needed to uplift occupations where Muslims are disproportionately employed.

6) Private Sector Involvement – The private sector should play a role in community empowerment efforts.

7) Strengthening Community Institutions – Capacity-building programs for Muslim organizations, charities, and self-help groups should be prioritized to improve their access to government welfare schemes.

Conclusion

• The backwardness of India’s Muslim community has been an evolving policy concern, with shifting approaches over time. While earlier governments focused on targeted minority-centric programs, the post-2014 framework integrates Muslim welfare into broader development schemes.
• Addressing existing disparities requires a balanced approach, combining secularized affirmative action with institutional support and economic inclusion strategies.

5) The Chagos Dispute: Mauritius vs. the UK

GS 2: International Relations: Dispute over Chagos island

Why is it in the news?

• India recently reaffirmed its support for Mauritius’ claim over the Chagos archipelago, emphasizing its commitment to decolonization, sovereignty, and territorial integrity.
• The Chagos islands have remained a contentious issue, as the UK retained control over them even after granting Mauritius independence in 1968.

UK’s Recognition and Diego Garcia Base

• In 2023, the UK officially recognized Mauritius’ sovereign rights over Chagos but retained control over Diego Garcia, the largest island, which hosts a key UK-US military base.
• The agreement, awaiting final confirmation from Washington, has faced criticism from various quarters, including in the US, UK, Mauritius, and among the native Chagossians.

Chagos and Its Geography

• The Chagos archipelago consists of over 60 low-lying islands in the Indian Ocean, located about 1,600 km northeast of Mauritius. It has a total land area of 56.1 sq km, with Diego Garcia alone covering 32.5 sq km, similar in size to Lakshadweep.
• Including its lagoons, Chagos spans over 15,000 sq km, with the Great Chagos Bank being the world’s largest atoll, covering 12,642 sq km. Historically uninhabited, the islands had limited resources to support settled populations.

Early History and Settlement

• Chagos was first mapped by the Portuguese in the 16th century but was not permanently settled until the 18th century. France officially claimed Peros Banhos in 1744 and later established settlements in Diego Garcia in 1783, where 22 slaves from Mauritius were brought to work on coconut plantations.
• The population grew with enslaved labourers from Madagascar, East Africa, Seychelles, and Mauritius. In 1814, after Napoleon’s defeat, France ceded Mauritius, Chagos, and Seychelles to Britain.
• Following the abolition of slavery in 1833, indentured labourers from India and Malaya were brought to work on the islands. Today’s Chagossians trace their lineage to these groups and are recognized as the indigenous people of Chagos under international law.

The Creation of BIOT and US Military Presence

• In the 1950s, the US identified Diego Garcia as a strategic location for a military base. Britain, in the process of decolonization, created the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT) in 1965, incorporating Chagos from Mauritius and three islands from Seychelles (later returned to Seychelles in 1976).
• Mauritius was paid £3 million for the detachment of Chagos. A secret UK-US agreement in 1966 established the Diego Garcia base, barring civilians from residing on the islands.

Forced Expulsion of Chagossians

• Between the late 1960s and early 1970s, Chagossians were expelled from their homeland. Those who had temporarily left Chagos were not allowed to return, and supplies to the islands were cut off. By 1973, all plantations had shut down, and the roughly 2,000 Chagossians were forcibly relocated to Mauritius and Seychelles.
• The Diego Garcia base became operational in 1986 and played a key role in US military operations in the Gulf War, Iraq, and Afghanistan. Today, it remains a vital UK-US outpost for projecting power in the Indian Ocean, especially amid China’s increasing regional influence.

International Legal Challenges and Mauritius’ Claim

• Mauritius has consistently challenged the UK’s occupation of Chagos, calling it illegal. In 2017, the UN General Assembly sought an advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice (ICJ), which ruled in 2019 that the UK must end its administration of Chagos.
• The UNGA subsequently passed a resolution calling for Britain’s unconditional withdrawal within six months. However, the UK and Mauritius only began negotiations in 2022.

The 2024 Agreement and Its Controversies

• In October 2024, the UK recognized Mauritius’ sovereignty over Chagos, including Diego Garcia, but retained control for an initial 99-year period to ensure the base’s continued operation. Mauritius was granted the right to resettle Chagos, except Diego Garcia.
• While the agreement was praised as historic, critics accused the UK and US of ceding control to China, citing China’s growing influence in Mauritius and other Indian Ocean nations. Mauritius’ opposition leader Navin Ramgoolam criticized the deal as a “sellout” and proposed amendments.
• Many Chagossians, now living in Mauritius, Seychelles, and the UK, protested their exclusion from negotiations and questioned the management of UK-funded resettlement programs, recalling past financial mismanagement in 1972 and 1982.

Conclusion

• The Chagos dispute remains a complex geopolitical issue involving decolonization, strategic military interests, and indigenous rights.
• While the UK’s recognition of Mauritius’ claim marks progress, the future of Diego Garcia and the Chagossian people remains uncertain amid global power dynamics.

6) NASA Shuts Down Three Departments: Implications for the Space Agency

GS 3: Science and Technology: Concern over NASA’s budget cuts

Why is it in the news?

• NASA has become the latest U.S. agency to face budget cuts under the Donald Trump administration, which has been aggressively identifying and eliminating government expenditures deemed unnecessary.
• To comply with executive orders issued in January, NASA has announced the closure of at least three departments. These include the Office of the Chief Scientist, the Office of Technology, Policy, and Strategy, and parts of the Office of Diversity and Equal Opportunity (ODEO). NASA currently has a workforce of approximately 18,000 employees.

Operational Impact and Potential Future Cuts

• As of now, NASA’s operational divisions remain unaffected, but concerns persist that these budget cuts might extend to space missions. Reports suggest that NASA’s Science Mission Directorate, which oversees space research, could face budget reductions of up to 50%.
• The Planetary Society, a key space advocacy organization, warned that such cuts could severely impact space science and exploration, potentially undermining U.S. leadership in this field.
• While NASA has faced relatively lighter budget reductions compared to other government departments, ODEO has lost some positions but has not been entirely shut down.

Changes in Diversity and Inclusion Initiatives

• The Trump administration has specifically targeted Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) programs across federal agencies, leading to widespread defunding.
• While NASA’s ODEO department still exists, its webpage, including the strategic plan for DEI initiatives from 2022-26, has been removed.
• This is particularly noteworthy as NASA’s Artemis program aims to land the first woman, first person of colour, and an international partner astronaut on the Moon, showcasing its commitment to inclusivity in space exploration.

Closure of the Chief Scientist’s Office

• The most significant closure is that of the Office of the Chief Scientist, which provided independent scientific assessments to NASA’s leadership and served as the public-facing branch for science-related matters.
• Katherine Calvin, a climate scientist appointed in 2022, is the 11th person to hold this role since the office was established in 1982. Over the years, this office has been shut down or remained vacant multiple times, including between 1989-1993, 1996-1999, and 2005-2011.

Office of Technology, Policy, and Strategy Shut Down

• Another key department facing closure is the Office of Technology, Policy, and Strategy, which was established in 2021.
• This office brought together experts from various fields such as economics, public policy, and technology to assist NASA leadership in decision-making for space missions. It identified emerging challenges and opportunities for integration into NASA’s science programs.

New Leadership and Political Shifts

• NASA is currently awaiting the confirmation of a new administrator. The head of NASA, known as the administrator, is a political appointee, as is the deputy administrator, while the highest-ranking career official is the associate administrator.
• Trump has nominated billionaire businessman Jared Isaacman, who has flown as a space tourist on two SpaceX missions he personally funded. In September 2024, he became the first non-professional astronaut to perform a spacewalk.
• He is considered close to SpaceX founder Elon Musk, who has been a key figure in the Trump administration’s cost-cutting initiatives. If confirmed, Isaacman would be the youngest NASA administrator in history, surpassing Jim Bridenstine, who assumed the role in 2018 during Trump’s first term.

7) Starlink: Revolutionizing Internet Connectivity in India

GS 3: Science and Technology: Expanding internet access

Why is it in the news?

• Bharti Airtel and Reliance Jio have signed separate agreements with Elon Musk’s SpaceX to bring the Starlink internet service to India. SpaceX has applied for security clearance with the Indian government, but the application is currently under review at the Home Ministry.
• This development comes as part of efforts to expand internet access across the country, particularly in remote and underserved areas.

What is Starlink?

• Starlink is a satellite-based internet service operated by SpaceX, Musk’s aerospace company. Launched in 2019, the project aims to deploy 42,000 small satellites into space, forming a global network positioned 547 km above Earth.
• Currently, around 7,000 mass-produced small satellites are in low Earth orbit (LEO), which includes altitudes under 2,000 km.
• By the end of 2024, Starlink had over 4.6 million users across 100+ countries, marking rapid growth from the 2.3 million users it had at the start of the year. This expansion highlights the increasing reliance on satellite-based connectivity worldwide.
• In the United States, Starlink offers internet speeds of up to 220 Mbps. However, the service is expensive. The standard home internet plan costs $120 per month, with an additional one-time equipment cost of approximately $349. For mobile service, the monthly rate is lower, but the expected speeds are also reduced.

How Does Satellite Internet Work?

• Satellite internet functions by transmitting signals from the user’s device to a satellite in space. This satellite then relays the data to a ground station that is connected to the internet. The ground station retrieves the requested information and sends it back through the satellite to the user’s dish, completing the connection.
• Unlike traditional internet services, satellite internet does not require cables, fibre-optic connections, or phone lines. The user only needs a modem and a satellite dish, with the modem translating the incoming signals into a usable internet connection.

Significance of Starlink in India

• Starlink presents a viable solution for providing broadband access in India’s remote and underserved regions, where traditional internet infrastructure, such as fibre-optic cables and wireless networks, is either scarce or absent.
• By leveraging satellite technology, Starlink can bridge the digital divide, ensuring high-speed internet reaches the most isolated parts of the country.
• Although India is the world’s second-largest internet market, a significant digital gap persists. According to a 2024 report by GSMA, a trade body representing mobile network operators, more than 670 million of India’s 1.4 billion people still lack internet access.

Conclusion

• The entry of satellite-based internet in India could revolutionize digital access, supporting education, healthcare, and business in remote regions while strengthening the country’s digital infrastructure.

8) Viral Meningitis Cases in Kerala

GS 3: Science and Technology: Understanding Meningitis

Why is it in the news?

• Five students from a private school in Kalamassery, Ernakulam district, exhibited symptoms of viral meningitis and sought medical treatment.
• Their condition remains stable, according to district health authorities. Samples have been sent to the National Institute of Virology, Alappuzha, for testing.

What is Meningitis?

• Meningitis is the inflammation of the meninges, the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. It can be caused by infections of bacterial, viral, or fungal origin.
• Viral meningitis is generally less severe than bacterial meningitis and often resolves without complications. However, bacterial meningitis is a medical emergency requiring immediate diagnosis and antibiotic treatment. If left untreated, it can cause hearing loss, cognitive impairment, neurological complications, or even death.
• A related condition, encephalitis, involves inflammation of the brain tissue itself, often due to infections like Japanese encephalitis, Nipah virus, and rabies. Unlike viral meningitis, encephalitis carries a higher risk of severe complications, including permanent neurological damage or death.

Symptoms of Viral Meningitis

• Common symptoms include fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light (photophobia). In young children, symptoms may be less specific and can include irritability, poor feeding, or lethargy.

Diagnosis of Viral Meningitis

• Early suspicion and testing are crucial for diagnosis. A lumbar puncture (spinal tap) is performed to collect cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which helps distinguish between viral, bacterial, or other causes of meningitis.
• If viral meningitis is suspected, RT-PCR tests can identify specific viruses by detecting their genetic material.

Treatment of Viral Meningitis

• Viral meningitis treatment is supportive, as antibiotics are ineffective against viruses. Management includes pain relief, fluid maintenance, and nutritional support. Most cases resolve on their own within one to two weeks.
• Nearly all viral meningitis cases recover fully without long-term effects. However, bacterial meningitis can lead to severe complications like hearing loss, cognitive impairment, and neurological damage, and can be fatal if untreated.

Causes of Viral Meningitis

Many viruses can cause meningitis, with enteroviruses responsible for over 85% of cases. Other common causes include:

• Herpes simplex virus (HSV-1 and HSV-2)
• Varicella-zoster virus (VZV, chickenpox virus)
• Mumps virus
• Cytomegalovirus (CMV)

Can Enteroviruses Cause Encephalitis?

• Though enteroviruses primarily cause viral meningitis, certain strains like EV-71 can also lead to encephalitis in rare cases.

How Do Enteroviruses Spread?

Enteroviruses enter the body through the mouth or respiratory tract, reach the intestines, and then spread to the meninges via the bloodstream. Transmission occurs through:

• Direct contact – Person-to-person spread, especially in crowded places.
• Faecal-oral contamination – Spread through contaminated food, water, or surfaces.

Resistance of Enteroviruses

• Enteroviruses are non-enveloped viruses, making them resistant to destruction. Alcohol-based sanitizers are ineffective, and the virus can survive on surfaces or in water for weeks. Effective disinfection requires bleach or boiling water.

Prevention of Viral Meningitis

• Isolation of sick children – Infected individuals should stay home to prevent the spread of enteroviruses, chickenpox, mumps, influenza, and COVID-19.
• Frequent handwashing – Using soap helps remove viruses from the skin.
• Avoiding shared items – Water bottles and utensils should not be shared.
• Cough etiquette – Coughing or sneezing into an elbow or tissue prevents airborne transmission.
• Surface disinfection – Cleaning high-touch surfaces like doorknobs and tables with bleach reduces viral transmission.
• Safe food and water – Clean water and proper food hygiene minimize infection risk.

Role of Vaccination

• Vaccination is highly effective in preventing meningitis caused by bacterial infections. Vaccines are available for pneumococcus and meningococcus, the two most common bacterial causes.
• Additionally, vaccines for mumps and chickenpox help prevent viral meningitis caused by these infections.

Conclusion

• Viral meningitis is typically mild and self-limiting, but early diagnosis is essential to rule out bacterial causes. Proper hygiene, sanitation, and vaccination play a crucial role in preventing its spread and ensuring better public health outcomes.