AMIGOS IAS Daily Current Affairs (12^th August 2024)

How will Sheikh Hasina’s exit impact India?

GS 2: International Relations: India-Bangladesh

Why is it in the news?

• The recent political upheaval in Bangladesh, which led to Sheikh Hasina’s departure and the rise of a new interim government, has significant implications for India and its relations with Dhaka.

An Analysis

• Sheikh Hasina’s tenure since 2009 marked a transformative period in India-Bangladesh relations. Her administration made concerted efforts to strengthen ties with India, focusing on areas such as economic cooperation, border security, and strategic collaboration.
• Notable achievements during her time in office included the crackdown on terror camps and the extradition of individuals wanted by India for terrorism and crime.
• This period also saw significant agreements like the 2015 land boundary agreement, which resolved long-standing border disputes and improved bilateral relations.
• In contrast, her predecessor, Khaleda Zia, had a more contentious relationship with India. Under Zia’s leadership, tensions were marked by issues such as illegal immigration and violent border clashes, which strained diplomatic ties.
• The recent political changes, with Sheikh Hasina’s exit and the formation of an interim government led by Muhammad Yunus, pose several challenges for India. One immediate concern is the potential review of bilateral agreements and projects initiated under Hasina’s regime.
• India had significant investments in infrastructure and energy projects in Bangladesh, including agreements with the Adani group, which may now be scrutinized or renegotiated.
• The new interim government’s stance towards India is still evolving, and the presence of Sheikh Hasina in India could complicate diplomatic relations.
• The interim government and public sentiment in Bangladesh may view Hasina’s asylum with suspicion, and there could be calls for her extradition, which India would need to navigate carefully.
• India’s relationship with Bangladesh was notably tense during Khaleda Zia’s last term, from 2001 to 2006. Zia’s administration was accused of harbouring anti-India separatist groups, which led to strained relations and increased Chinese and Pakistani influence in Bangladesh.
• The present political situation raises concerns about whether a future Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) -led government might revert to a similar stance, potentially impacting regional stability and India’s strategic interests.
• India has demonstrated a commitment to engaging with the new Bangladeshi government, as evidenced by the attendance of Indian High Commissioner Pranay Verma at the new regime’s swearing-in ceremony. However, several factors complicate this engagement.
• The Indian government’s recent actions, including the formation of a committee to ensure the safety of Indian citizens and minorities in Bangladesh, could be perceived as partisan, further straining relations.
• In terms of regional diplomacy, the new political landscape in Bangladesh could lead to shifts in its foreign policy. For instance, relations with the U.S., which had been strained under Hasina’s administration, might improve. Similarly, Bangladesh’s ties with Pakistan and China are likely to evolve as the new government establishes its foreign policy priorities.
• Hence, Sheikh Hasina’s departure represents a significant turning point in India-Bangladesh relations, with potential impacts on bilateral agreements, regional stability, and diplomatic engagement.
• India faces the challenge of navigating these changes while ensuring continued cooperation and addressing new diplomatic dynamics in Dhaka.

Additional Information:

Navigating Challenges: India’s Engagement with a New Regime

• Uncertain Political Environment: India faces potential impacts on strategic interests, increased security risks, and heightened threats to Hindu minorities due to uncertainties in a new regime’s political environment.
• Regional Geopolitics: Political instability in Bangladesh could enable China’s expansion in the region, posing a strategic challenge for India amidst broader regional tensions and complex neighbourly relations.
• Strategically encircled by unfriendly or indifferent neighbours:
• China and Pakistan to the west and north
• A communist-led government in Nepal
• Taliban’s seizure of power in Afghanistan
• An anti-India Maldives in the Indian Ocean
• A potentially ambivalent regime in Bangladesh
• Impact on Indian Investments: Disruptions in trade and payment delays could impact the profitability and stability of these investments, particularly in the textile sector, and could disrupt trade agreements and operations of Indian businesses.
• Bilateral Trade: According to the Union Ministry of Commerce, in trade terms, Bangladesh is India’s largest trading partner in the subcontinent, while India is Bangladesh’s second largest partner in Asia after China, with their total bilateral trade reaching $13 billion in 2023-24.
• Impact of Potential Free Trade Agreement (FTA): The proposed FTA could potentially increase Bangladesh’s exports to India by 297% and India’s exports by 172%, further enhanced by improved transport infrastructure and connectivity.
• Impact on Infrastructure and Connectivity: India has bolstered its relationship with Bangladesh by providing $8 billion in lines of credit since 2016 for developing key infrastructure, including road, rail, shipping, and port projects such as the Akhaura-Agartala rail link and the Khulna-Mongla Port rail line.
• Resurgence of Islamist Extremism: The departure of the secular and modernizing former Prime Minister has created an opportunity for the resurgence of Islamist extremism, anti-Hindu sentiment, and pro-Pakistan politics in Bangladesh.

Way Forward:

• Strategic Alliance Building: India is adopting a “wait-and-watch” approach to monitor developments in Bangladesh, aiming to build new alliances by engaging with diverse political factions and adapting to the changing political landscape to foster a more inclusive and positive relationship.
• Diplomatic Engagement: India must craft a proactive diplomatic strategy to engage with Bangladesh’s new government while avoiding perceptions of interference.
• Enhancing Security Measures: India needs to bolster border security along borders and in areas with Bangladeshi expatriates is vital to manage potential spillover effects and stay alert to potential anti-India activities, particularly if the new government aligns with Pakistan or China.
• Economic Ties: Indian exporters should prepare contingency plans to handle potential disruptions in trade and economic stability. Strengthening economic relations and leveraging people-to-people connections are crucial for sustaining a positive relationship with Bangladesh despite political shifts.
• Learning from Past: Drawing on past experiences, such as those with Afghanistan, will aid India in navigating the current political transition in Bangladesh effectively.
• Collaborative Efforts: India should work with international partners, including the US, Gulf nations, and Europe, to ensure a stable transition in Bangladesh and address regional challenges.
• Inclusive Engagement: India should engage with various political factions in Bangladesh to foster an inclusive relationship and address any negative perceptions.

UPSC Civil Services Mains: PYQ:

Q. Critically examine the compulsions which prompted India to play a decisive role in the emergence of Bangladesh. (2013)

Will the new Saudi law help migrant domestic workers?

GS 2: International Relations: India-Saudi Arabia

Why is it in the news?

• The upcoming migrant domestic workers (MDW) law in Saudi Arabia, set to be implemented in September, holds promise for improving the conditions of domestic workers.

More about the news

Saudi’s New Domestic Workers Law:

• Saudi Arabia, which employs a significant number of migrant domestic workers, is introducing this law to address existing gaps in protection. However, despite its features, there are concerns about its effectiveness due to Saudi Arabia’s poor track record in implementing such protections.
• As of early 2024, Saudi Arabia has approximately 3.91 million migrant domestic workers, comprising 27.3 million males and 1.18 million females, representing 25% of the total workforce. These workers are currently excluded from standard labour protections, leaving them vulnerable.
• The Kafala system, which ties workers’ residency to their employers, exacerbates their marginalization by granting employers excessive control over their employees, often leading to exploitation and abuse. This system effectively outsources the immigration regime to individuals, further undermining workers’ rights.
• The new MDW law includes several notable features: a cap on working hours at 10 per day, a weekly day off, prohibition on the confiscation of identity documents, and rights to communicate and terminate contracts under certain conditions without forfeiting entitlements.
• It also introduces compensation for unjust termination, annual paid leave, and mandates that employers cover the cost of workers’ return tickets.
• Additionally, insurance is now required for all new MDW contracts, and all new MDWs have been included in the Wage Protection System (WPS) from July, with plans to cover all existing MDWs by the end of 2025. Despite these advancements, significant issues remain.
• Saudi Arabia has a history of poor implementation of labour laws, and the new protections may be insufficient to address systemic abuses. Wage theft and exploitation are common, with limited accountability for employers.
• For MDWs, especially women, the risk of being reported as absconding if they leave the employer’s household without permission remains a serious concern. Although recent reforms have made it harder to file false absconding charges, abusive employers can still misuse the system.
• Indian migrant domestic workers, who number around 2.65 million and make up a large portion of this workforce, face particular challenges.
• While the Indian government requires recruitment through the e-Migrate system and has established a minimum referral wage, as well as financial guarantees and attested contracts for female workers, consular support in Saudi Arabia often falls short.
• The Indian Embassy in Riyadh and the consulate in Jeddah struggle to provide comprehensive assistance beyond repatriation, leaving many workers without adequate access to justice or resolution of their issues.

Additional Information:

About Kafala system:

• The Kafala system is a sponsorship framework used to regulate migrant labourers in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, Lebanon, and Jordan.
• Definition: Under this system, migrant workers from Asia and Africa are bonded to specific employers (“kafeel”), who control their visas and legal status, granting employers significant authority over their employees.
• Marginalisation of Workers: This system often results in the marginalisation and exploitation of low-income migrant workers resembling bonded labour, leaving them vulnerable to abuses.

Initiatives by the Indian Government to Ensure the Welfare of Migrant Workers:

• Legal Framework: The Emigration Act of 1983 regulates Indian worker emigration, requiring recruitment agencies to register and follow procedures to ensure compliance and worker protection.
• E-Migrate System: The online E-Migrate platform facilitates clearances for skilled and semi-skilled workers, tracking immigration status and preventing exploitation by unregistered agents.
• Bilateral Labour Agreements (BLAs): India has signed agreements with GCC countries (UAE, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain) to improve employment contracts, labour policies, and worker rights abroad.
• Indian Community Welfare Fund (ICWF): ICWF offers emergency financial support for distressed Indian workers abroad, covering repatriation, legal aid, shelter, and medical expenses.
• Indian Workers Resource Centres (IWRCs): IWRCs in Dubai and other cities provide guidance and counselling on issues faced by Indian workers overseas.
• Awareness Campaign: The ‘Surakshit Jaaye Prasikshit Jaaye’ campaign promotes safe and informed migration, supported by the “Madad” government portal for filing grievances.
• Pravasi Bharatiya Bima Yojana (PBBY): This mandatory insurance scheme offers life and disability cover up to Rs. 10 lakhs for Emigration Check Required (ECR) category workers.
• Restrictions on Women’s Emigration: Women under 30 are restricted from emigrating for certain jobs such as domestic work, hairdressing, and entertainment.

UPSC Civil Services PYQ’s:

Prelims:

Q. Which of the following is not a member of ‘Gulf Cooperation Council’? (2016)

(a) Iran

(c) Oman

(b) Saudi Arabia

(d) Kuwait

Answer: A

Mains:

Q. Indian Diaspora has an important role to play in South-East Asian countries’ economy and society. Appraise the role of the Indian Diaspora in South-East Asia in this context. (2017)

Japan issues its first-ever ‘megaquake advisory’

GS 1&3: Geography and Disaster Management: Earthquakes

Why is it in the news?

• On August 8, a magnitude-7.1 earthquake struck southern Japan, prompting the country’s meteorological agency to issue its first-ever “megaquake advisory.”
• This advisory highlighted an elevated likelihood of strong shaking and significant tsunamis along the Nankai Trough, a major subduction zone on Japan’s southwest Pacific coast.
• However, the advisory did not predict a specific timeframe for a major earthquake but rather indicated increased risk in the region.

More about the news

About Nankai Trough:

• The Nankai Trough is an underwater subduction zone, stretching nearly 900 kilometres, where the Eurasian Plate collides with the Philippine Sea Plate. This collision forces the latter beneath the former, leading to the accumulation of tectonic stress that can trigger megaquakes—earthquakes with magnitudes over 8.
• Historical data shows that large earthquakes in this region occur roughly every 100 to 150 years, often in pairs, with the second quake usually following within a couple of years.
• The recent 7.1 magnitude quake occurred on or near this trough, raising concerns about the potential for more severe tremors.
• According to Japan’s Earthquake Research Committee, there is about a 70% chance that a magnitude 8-9 megaquake could strike the Nankai Trough within the next 30 years.
• Such an event could affect a vast area from central Shizuoka to southwestern Miyazaki, potentially generating tsunami waves up to 98 feet high along Japan’s Pacific coasts.
• A major earthquake could impact about a third of Japan’s landmass, home to nearly half of its population, and result in economic damages up to $1.50 trillion, more than a third of Japan’s annual GDP.
• Currently, predicting earthquakes with accuracy remains impossible. There are no reliable precursors that indicate an imminent major quake. The recent advisory was a precautionary measure, urging residents to prepare, review evacuation plans, and stay alert for further warnings.
• According to experts, the advisory was intended to prompt preparedness rather than predict a specific earthquake.

Additional Information:

Earthquake:

• About: An earthquake is the shaking or trembling of the Earth’s surface caused by seismic waves resulting from the sudden release of energy within the Earth’s crust or upper mantle.
• Origin: The hypocentre (focus) is the point below the Earth’s surface where an earthquake originates, while the epicentre is the location directly above it on the Earth’s surface.

• Distribution: These primarily occur in three major zones: the circum-Pacific seismic belt (Ring of Fire) with 81% of the largest quakes, the Alpide belt (mid-Continental) with 17% of significant earthquakes, and the mid-Atlantic Ridge where plates are spreading apart.

• Types: These are categorized into four types based on their causes: tectonic (due to plate movements), volcanic (associated with volcanic activity), collapse (from mining activities), and explosion (from high-energy explosions), with tectonic earthquakes being the most common and impactful.
• Measuring Earthquakes: Earthquake events are measured by magnitude on the Richter scale, reflecting the energy released (0-10), and by intensity on the Mercalli scale, indicating visible damage (1-12).
• Effects: The following are the immediate hazardous effects of earthquake:
• Ground Shaking
• Land and mudslides
• Fires
• Ground lurching
• Avalanches
• Floods from dam and levee failures
• Structural collapse
• Tsunami

Parties, Serious Crimes, and the Need for Judicial Clarity

GS 2: Polity and Governance: PMLA

About the news

• Former Secretary General of the Lok Sabha, P.D.T. Achary, analyzes two significant observations from the Supreme Court of India regarding bail petitions for Delhi Chief Minister Arvind Kejriwal and former Deputy Chief Minister Manish Sisodia.
• The first observation came from a Bench led by Justice Sanjiv Khanna, who questioned whether a political party, specifically the Aam Aadmi Party (AAP), could be implicated in cases under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA).
• The Enforcement Directorate subsequently made AAP an accused party in Kejriwal’s case. This development is notable as it marks a potential precedent for including political parties as defendants under the PMLA. In a parliamentary democracy, implicating a political party in serious criminal cases presents complex challenges.
• From a legal perspective, Section 70 of the PMLA, which addresses offenses by companies, was used to involve AAP. This section implies that individuals in charge of a company can be deemed guilty if the company commits a contravention of the Act.
• However, political parties do not fit neatly into this definition. Section 29A of The Representation of the People Act (RPA), 1951, defines a political party as an association of individuals calling itself a political party. This definition does not align with the PMLA’s provisions, which focus on corporate bodies or firms.
• Consequently, the inclusion of political parties under Section 70 of the PMLA appears legally questionable. Political parties operate differently from businesses and are primarily involved in mobilizing people and running governments rather than engaging in transactional activities.
• The second observation came from a Bench of Justices B.R. Gavai and K.V. Viswanathan in Sisodia’s bail petition, where they asked about the boundary between policy and criminality.
• In the context of a policy framed by a cabinet, the judiciary generally does not assess the policy’s correctness or the motives behind it. The cabinet, as the highest decision-making body, is accountable to the electorate but not to the judiciary for its policy decisions.
• The Supreme Court has traditionally maintained that criminal charges cannot be attributed to individual Ministers for collective cabinet decisions. This principle ensures that Ministers are only held accountable for personal actions that violate the law, not for collective policy decisions made by the cabinet.
• The implications of involving political parties in criminal investigations and holding individual Ministers accountable for cabinet decisions are profound.
• In a political landscape where vendettas can influence legal actions, such decisions could expose all political parties to vulnerabilities.
• Therefore, there is an urgent need for the Supreme Court to provide clear guidance on these issues to ensure a fair and consistent application of the law.

Biotechnologists detect difference in use of nitrogen by rice varieties

GS 3: Science and Technology: Nitrogen-use efficiency

Why is it in the news?

• Biotechnologists at Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University (GGU) in New Delhi have uncovered significant differences in nitrogen-use efficiency (NUE) among popular rice varieties in India.
• This discovery could lead to the development of new rice varieties that require less nitrogen while maintaining high yields, potentially reducing the reliance on imported fertilizers and mitigating nitrogen-linked pollution.

More about the news

• According to the study, the cereals, particularly rice, consume two-thirds of all urea used in India. Inefficient use of nitrogen fertilizers results in substantial wastage, amounting to ₹1 trillion annually in India and over $170 billion globally.
• The study, published in the Journal of Plant Growth Regulation, reveals that the NUE of the most efficient rice varieties is five times higher than the least efficient ones. However, high NUE does not always correlate with the highest yields, and Indian farmers typically prioritize yield over NUE.
• Further, there is a need for a broader approach in agricultural research to identify rice varieties with both improved NUE and high yields. Historically, Indian agriculture has focused on increasing yield, which has led to greater fertilizer use, waste, and pollution.
• Hence, it advocates for leveraging biotechnology to enhance NUE in addition to improving fertilizer formulations and crop management practices.

Additional Information:

Key Points on Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) in Agriculture:

• Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) in rice is crucial for sustainability, as it measures grain yield per unit of nitrogen applied, with a higher ratio indicating lower wastage.
• As NUE declines, farmers increase fertilizer use to boost yields, which exacerbates the inefficiency.
• Researchers have identified specific phenotypes in cultivated rice varieties that determine their nitrogen-use efficiency (NUE).
• Fertilizer Usage: Only about 30% of nitrogen fertilizer applied is used by crops, with the remainder causing environmental harm, and rice is the largest consumer of nitrogen fertilizers in India.
• Inefficient fertilizer uses results in significant financial losses, with India wasting Rs 1 lakh crore annually and global losses exceeding $170 billion.

UPSC civil Services Prelims PYQ:

Q. Which of the following adds/add nitrogen to the soil? (2013)

1. Excretion of Urea by animals

2. Burning of coal by man

3. Death of vegetation

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2, and 3

Answer: C

Perseid meteor shower

GS 1&3: Geography & Science and Technology: Meteors

About the news

• The name “Perseid” is thought to be derived from the Perseus constellation.
• The Perseid meteor shower, which began in July and continues through late August, is currently peaking between August 11 and 13.
• Visible primarily in the northern hemisphere, this annual event is best observed between midnight and dawn, although visibility may be affected by local weather conditions.
• The Perseids are caused by debris from the comet Swift-Tuttle, which completes an orbit around the Sun every 133 years. As Earth passes through this debris cloud, gravity pulls the particles towards the planet, creating the meteor shower.
• In the 1990s, there was concern about a potential impact from Swift-Tuttle, as the comet is 26 km wide. However, subsequent calculations have reassured scientists that Earth is safe from a collision for at least the next two millennia.
• Despite this, the Perseid shower itself poses no threat to Earth, with most meteors burning up in the atmosphere, though some can produce small fireballs. During its peak, the shower can generate more than 60 meteors per hour.

Additional Information:

Key facts about Meteor Shower:

• A meteor is a space rock entering Earth’s atmosphere, where friction with the air heats it up, causing the bright streak we see to be the hot air surrounding it (shooting star), not the rock itself.
• Meteor showers, on the other hand, are witnessed when many series of meteorites hit the atmosphere over Earth together, we call it a meteor shower.

Hindenburg report on SEBI chief raises political storm

GS 3: Economy: SEBI

Why is it in the news?

• A political storm has erupted following the latest Hindenburg report, which makes allegations against Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) Chairperson Madhabi Puri Buch.

More about the news

• Congress leader Rahul Gandhi has called for a Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC) inquiry into the charges outlined in the report.
• Gandhi, in a video statement, described the report’s revelations as “explosive” and questioned why Buch had not resigned in light of these new allegations. He also wondered if the Supreme Court might address the matter again suo motu.
• In response, the BJP has dismissed the allegations, claiming that global forces and the Congress party are attempting to obstruct India’s progress. The party views the allegations as a continuation of discredited claims that have already been thoroughly investigated and dismissed by the Supreme Court in January 2024.
• The Adani Group has similarly condemned the report, labelling it as a “recycling of discredited claims” linked to their companies.
• The U.S.-based short seller’s report alleges that Buch had a stake in offshore entities connected to what it describes as “the Adani money siphoning scandal.” Both Buch and her husband have denied these allegations, calling them baseless.
• As Madhabi Puri Buch faces scrutiny, key concerns have emerged regarding her disclosures and conduct. The primary issues are whether she fully disclosed her financial interests to the government and if she recused herself from matters involving entities where she or her husband had a stake.
• The finance ministry is reportedly open to concessions for Buch, noting her private sector background and the legality of her investments in global funds. However, former regulators argue that Buch should have been meticulous in her disclosures if she or her husband invested in Adani-related entities.
• Former SEBI officials are questioning whether Buch recused herself from investigations involving the Adani Group during her tenure. SEBI has stated that Buch adhered to disclosure and recusal norms, including the reporting of securities holdings and their transfers.
• A comparison is drawn with past SEBI chairpersons, such as C.B. Bhave, who recused himself from discussions related to NSDL, where he had a conflict of interest. Additionally, another former SEBI chief who opened a demat account after his term had no shareholdings in any company, illustrating different approaches to managing conflicts of interest.
• Buch has stated that upon her husband’s appointment as Senior Advisor to Blackstone Group, Blackstone was added to her recusal list. However, there is no clear statement regarding her 2015 investment in a global fund, which was redeemed in 2018, before her SEBI appointment.
• Former Chief Vigilance Commissioner Pradeep Kumar emphasized that SEBI operates independently, with limited oversight from the CVC. The SEBI board itself, alongside judicial scrutiny from the Securities Appellate Tribunal, provides built-in oversight.
• In past instances, SEBI boards have taken measures to avoid conflicts of interest, such as instructing that investigation files bypass the chairman if allegations involve him. Given the current scrutiny, some suggest that Buch might have needed to recuse herself from Adani-related matters to maintain impartiality.

Additional Information:

About Hindenburg Research:

• Founded in 2017 by Nathan Anderson, Hindenburg Research is a US-based investment research firm named after the 1937 Hindenburg disaster, a man-made explosion of a German airship.
• The company specializes in forensic financial analysis, investigating accounting irregularities, unethical practices, and undisclosed financial issues, often revealing corporate fraud and stock manipulation with significant market impacts.

Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI):

• About: Established in 1992 under the Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, SEBI is a statutory body under the Finance Ministry responsible for regulating the securities market.
• Composition: It includes a chairman, two members from the Union Finance Ministry, one member from the Reserve Bank of India, and five additional members nominated by the Union Government, with at least three being whole-time members.
• Further, a Securities Appellate Tribunal (SAT) has been constituted to protect the interest of entities that feel aggrieved by SEBI’s decision.
• Powers: SEBI functions as a quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial body, capable of drafting regulations, conducting inquiries, issuing rulings, and imposing penalties.
• Functions: SEBI serves three main purposes:
• Issuers: Provides a marketplace for raising capital.
• Investors: Ensures safety and the availability of accurate information.
• Intermediaries: Facilitates a competitive and professional market for intermediaries.

UPSC Civil Services Mains PYQ:

Q. The product diversification of financial institutions and insurance companies, resulting in overlapping of products and services strengthens the case for the merger of the two regulatory agencies, namely SEBI and IRDA. Justify. (2013)

Study: Australia’s Great Barrier Reef now hottest in 400 years

GS 3: Environment and Biodiversity: Coral Reefs

Why is it in the news?

• A new study has found that water temperatures in and around Australia’s Great Barrier Reef have reached their highest levels in 400 years over the past decade, placing the world’s largest coral reef under significant threat.
• This research is notable for its historical context, comparing the impact of man-made climate change with data from much earlier periods. Unlike previous studies that focused on shorter time frames, this research covers a broader historical perspective.

(The Great Barrier Reef stretches approximately 2,400 km off the coast of Queensland)

More about the news:

What are coral reefs?

• Coral reefs are marine ecosystems where coral polyps and zooxanthellae algae engage in a crucial mutualistic relationship, with the algae providing nutrients and oxygen to the corals, while the corals offer shelter.
• Coral reefs, often referred to as the “rainforests of the sea,” are formed by corals, which are sessile animals attached themselves to the ocean floor. These are largely classified as either hard coral or soft coral.
• Corals build complex, three-dimensional structures over thousands of years through their stony skeletons made of limestone.
• Unlike soft corals, hard corals, in particular, are responsible for these reef structures.
• Coral reefs have existed on Earth for nearly 450 million years and are home to a diverse range of marine species.
• For example, the Great Barrier Reef is home to over 400 coral species, 1,500 fish species, 4,000 mollusc species, and six of the world’s seven sea turtle species.
• Important habitat: They also provide economic goods and services valued at around $375 billion annually, supporting more than 500 million people worldwide by offering food, income, and coastal protection from storms and floods.

Key findings of the Research:

• The study, conducted by scientists from universities across Australia, involved drilling cores into the coral to analyze historical summer ocean temperatures, similar to counting tree rings.
• This method, combined with ship and satellite data from the past century, revealed that ocean temperatures were stable for hundreds of years before rising significantly from 1900 onward due to human influence.
• Highest Recorded Temperatures: The study observed an average annual warming of 0.12°C per decade from January to March between 1960 and 2024. Since 2016, the reef has experienced five summers of mass coral bleaching, which occurs when heat stress turns large sections of the reef white and increases their risk of death.
• These bleaching events coincided with five of the six warmest years recorded in the last four centuries. The most recent temperature data from January to March of this year was the highest ever recorded, far surpassing previous years.

Additional Information:

About Great Barrier Reef:

• It is the world’s largest and longest coral reef system, is located in the Coral Sea off the northeastern coast of Australia and is the largest living structure on Earth.
• It extends over 2,300 km, encompasses about 3,000 reefs and 900 islands and supports over 25% of marine biodiversity even as they take up only 1% of the seafloor.
• A significant portion of the Great Barrier Reef is designated as a marine protected area, overseen by Australia’s Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority.
• It was designated as UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981, serves as a crucial habitat for endangered species such as the dugong and the green turtle.
• Mass bleaching of the Great Barrier Reef was first observed in 1998 and has occurred repeatedly in 2002, 2016, 2017, 2020, 2022, and 2024.

What is Coral Bleaching?

• Coral bleaching occurs when corals expel their symbiotic zooxanthellae algae due to stress from changes in temperature, light, or nutrient levels, leading to a loss of colour and turning the corals completely white or very pale.
• The pale white colour of bleached corals is due to the translucence of their calcium carbonate tissues, which become visible after the loss of pigment-producing zooxanthellae.
• Bleached corals can survive depending on the levels of bleaching and the recovery of sea temperatures to normal levels.
• If heat stress decreases within a few weeks, zooxanthellae may return and reestablish their relationship with the corals, but severe or prolonged stress can result in coral death.

UPSC Civil Services Prelims PYQ’s:

Q. Consider the following statements: (2018)

1. Most of the world’s coral reefs are in tropical waters.

2. More than one-third of the world’s coral reefs are located in the territories of Australia, Indonesia and Philippines.

3. Coral reefs host far a greater number of animal phyla than those hosted by tropical

rainforests.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: D

Q. Which of the following have coral reefs? (2014)

1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands

2. Gulf of Kachchh

3. Gulf of Mannar

4. Sundarbans

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2 and 3 only

(b) 2 and 4 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: A