1) Promoting Active Mobility in India: Towards Safer, Healthier, and Sustainable Cities

GS 3: Economy: Significance of active mobility

Context

• India’s metro cities are witnessing a surge in accidental deaths and injuries involving pedestrians, cyclists, and street-hawkers. Despite attempts to incorporate service lanes for non-motorised use, these often get encroached upon by motor vehicles, leading to equally dangerous conditions as on the main roads.
• In this scenario, the importance of active mobility—walking, cycling, and other non-motorised forms of transport—becomes more significant than ever.

What is Active Mobility?

• Active mobility refers to transportation modes powered by human effort rather than motorised engines. It includes walking, cycling, skateboarding, and similar methods used for commuting rather than recreation.
• Its relevance in India is rising due to increased traffic congestion, pollution, growing pedestrian fatalities, and broader health concerns.
• National initiatives like the National Transit Oriented Development (NTOD) policy and the Smart Cities Mission (SCM), alongside global commitments like the Paris Agreement, emphasise the need to cut carbon emissions and support eco-friendly transport options.

Karnataka’s Efforts: Active Mobility Bill, 2022

• Bengaluru’s first Bicycle Mayor, Sathya Sankaran, has championed cycling and pedestrian-friendly infrastructure since 2018. His advocacy helped shape the Karnataka Active Mobility Bill, 2022. In 2020, Karnataka reported the highest pedestrian death rate in India at 13%.
• The Bill seeks to promote urban mobility by safeguarding the rights of pedestrians and cyclists, offering a legal framework for active mobility, and ensuring equal access to public space.
• Other states have also followed suit. Delhi is enhancing its cycling and pedestrian infrastructure through the Delhi EV policy. Pune’s Comprehensive Bicycle Plan has introduced over 300 km of cycling lanes. Chennai is redesigning roads under the SCM for better pedestrian safety, and Kochi has launched a Public Bicycle Sharing (PBS) system to improve last-mile connectivity.

Significance of Active Mobility

• According to the World Health Organization (WHO), active mobility has several benefits—economic, social, environmental, and health-related. Economically, it reduces household transport expenses and healthcare costs by promoting public health. Pedestrian-friendly infrastructure benefits local businesses by increasing foot traffic.
• Environmentally, walking and cycling are low-emission modes that reduce India’s carbon output from road transport, which currently stands at 12%. Cities with robust active transport systems also experience better air quality and less traffic congestion.
• Health-wise, active mobility lowers the risk of chronic diseases, enhances cardiovascular health, boosts mental well-being, and contributes to overall community health, making urban areas more vibrant and sustainable.

Barriers to Active Mobility

• Despite its benefits, active mobility is underused in India due to infrastructural and social challenges. Over 85% of Indian roads fail to meet basic safety norms for pedestrians and cyclists. The availability of cheap motorised alternatives, harsh weather, and long commute distances further deter non-motorised travel.
• Social perceptions also play a role—cars and bikes are seen as status symbols. With over 12,000 cars sold daily, India faces growing congestion. Poor enforcement of traffic laws exacerbates the risks faced by pedestrians and cyclists.

Global Best Practices

• Countries like the Netherlands lead the way with over 35,000 km of dedicated cycling lanes. The European Union’s Mobility and Transport department actively supports walking and cycling to promote sustainable transport, bolstered by Vision Zero—a strategy to eliminate traffic-related deaths.
• Germany’s Berlin Mobility Act mandates broader sidewalks, exclusive cycling lanes, lower speed limits for motor vehicles in urban areas, and prioritises pedestrians and cyclists in city planning.

2) SC Strikes Down Governor’s Withholding of Assent

GS 2: Polity and Governance: Governor’s role in bill assent

Why is it in the news?

• In a landmark ruling, the Supreme Court set aside Tamil Nadu Governor R.N. Ravi’s decision to withhold assent to 10 Bills, calling it illegal and contrary to constitutional principles. The verdict significantly impacts the Governor’s role, particularly in Opposition-ruled states that often have strained relations with the Centre.
• A similar case from Kerala, challenging delay by its Governor in assenting to Bills, is also under consideration by the apex court.

Constitutional Provisions: Role of the Governor

• The Governor’s power to give assent to Bills is governed by Articles 163 and 200 of the Constitution. Article 200 allows the Governor four options when a Bill is presented: (1) grant assent, (2) withhold assent, (3) return the Bill for reconsideration, or (4) reserve it for the President’s consideration.
• The proviso to Article 200 adds that the Governor may return any non-Money Bill to the Legislature for reconsideration, but if re-passed, the Governor “shall not withhold assent.”

Issue of Indefinite Delays

• A core issue in the Tamil Nadu case was the indefinite delay by the Governor in acting on the Bills, which the state argued amounted to a “pocket veto,” stalling the legislative process.
• While the term “as soon as possible” is used in Article 200, the lack of a defined timeline has led Governors to hold up Bills indefinitely, creating administrative paralysis. The Governor defended his discretion, but the Court held that such powers must be exercised constitutionally, not arbitrarily.

Previous Supreme Court Rulings on the Issue

• The Supreme Court has earlier dealt with this issue in notable judgments. In the 2016 Nabam Rebia vs Deputy Speaker case from Arunachal Pradesh, the Court noted that the Governor cannot withhold assent indefinitely and must return the Bill with recommendations if needed. The judgment referred to Assembly Rules which require the Governor’s message to be read or circulated for members’ consideration.
• In 2023, in State of Punjab vs Principal Secretary to Governor, the apex court ruled against the Punjab Governor for withholding assent on the grounds of “illegal” Assembly sessions. The Court asserted that the Governor, though unelected, cannot hinder lawmaking and must follow the constitutional course under Article 200’s first proviso when withholding assent.

Highlights of the Supreme Court’s Tamil Nadu Verdict

The April 2025 ruling built on these precedents but introduced key clarifications and timelines. The Court ruled that:

• A Governor cannot reserve a Bill for Presidential consideration in the second round unless the Bill differs substantially from the original.
• The Governor must reserve a Bill for the President, if at all, within three months of its presentation.
• If a Bill is re-passed by the Legislature after reconsideration, the Governor must grant assent within one month.
• Importantly, the Supreme Court invoked Article 142 to declare the 10 Tamil Nadu Bills as having received assent. Article 142 allows the Court to do “complete justice” by bridging legal gaps in extraordinary cases. The Court criticized the Governor’s prolonged delay and his disregard for earlier judicial directions.

Impact on Other Pending Cases

• This ruling is expected to influence similar disputes. Kerala has petitioned the Supreme Court over six Bills pending with the former Governor, Arif Mohammad Khan — three pending for over two years and three for over a year.
• The Kerala High Court declined to intervene, prompting the state to approach the Supreme Court. A separate Bench is hearing this matter.
• Likewise, Telangana has complained that more than 10 important Bills are stuck with former Governor Tamilisai Soundararajan, including seven pending since September 2022. These cases could now be adjudicated in light of the Supreme Court’s Tamil Nadu ruling.

Conclusion

• The Supreme Court’s intervention establishes clear constitutional boundaries on the Governor’s role in lawmaking. It prevents misuse of discretionary powers, strengthens federalism, and upholds the legislative mandate of elected state governments.
• The ruling is likely to reshape Centre-State relations and set a precedent for future disputes involving Governors’ assent to Bills.

3) Dire Wolves and De-Extinction: Colossal Biosciences’ Genetic Breakthrough

GS 3: Science and Technology: Science of de-extinction

Why is it in the news?

• A US-based bioscience company, Colossal Biosciences, has claimed a scientific milestone — the revival of the extinct dire wolf species, made famous by the Game of Thrones The company, founded by billionaire Ben Lamm and geneticist George Church, stated, “On October 1, 2024, for the first time in human history, Colossal successfully restored a once-eradicated species through the science of de-extinction.
• After a 10,000+ year absence, our team is proud to return the dire wolf to its rightful place in the ecosystem.” The claim comes shortly after the company announced the birth of “woolly mice” as part of efforts to bring back the woolly mammoth. Colossal was valued at $10 billion in January.

Understanding the Dire Wolf

• Dire wolves (Aenocyon dirus) were large, powerful canines that roamed parts of North America, especially southern Canada and the US, until they went extinct around 13,000 years ago. They resembled modern grey wolves (Canis lupus) but were larger, had white coats, and weighed up to 68 kg.
• Dire wolves hunted large animals like horses, bison, and possibly mammoths. Their extinction may have been linked to the disappearance of these prey species, likely due in part to human activity.

The Birth of Genetically Modified Pups

• Colossal has reported the birth of three genetically modified grey wolf pups, described as “functional copies” of the dire wolf. Two male pups, Romulus and Remus, were born in October to surrogate dog mothers, and a female named Khaleesi was born in January.
• These pups are currently housed at a private 2,000-acre facility in the northern US, where they are being monitored and cared for.

The Science Behind De-Extinction

• To reconstruct the dire wolf genome, scientists at Colossal sourced ancient specimens from museums and laboratories, including a 13,000-year-old tooth and a 72,000-year-old skull. According to Colossal’s Chief Science Officer, the petrous bone in the skull provided well-preserved DNA.
• From these, researchers built two dire wolf genomes and compared them with genomes of other canids — including coyotes, jackals, dholes, and wolves — finding that the grey wolf is the dire wolf’s closest living relative, sharing 99.5% of DNA.
• Using CRISPR gene editing, scientists made 20 edits across 14 genes in the grey wolf genome. Fifteen of these changes aimed to recreate extinct traits like light coat color, hair length, coat patterns, body size, and musculature. Fertilized embryos were then implanted into surrogate dogs, resulting in the birth of the three pups.

Are They Truly Dire Wolves?

• While Colossal calls these animals dire wolves, they are not genetically identical to the extinct species. The New Scientist notes that despite a 99.5% DNA match, the grey wolf genome still differs in millions of base pairs. A 2021 Nature study found that grey and dire wolves, though physically similar, last shared a common ancestor around six million years ago.
• Beth Shapiro argues that the classification depends on the species concept used. “Species concepts are human classification systems… we are using the morphological species concept and saying, if they look like this animal, then they are the animal,” she explained.

Challenges to a True Comeback

• Despite the breakthrough, Colossal’s dire wolves may not yet represent a genuine return of the species. The pups lack socialization with other wolves, have no natural hunting experience, and are not allowed to breed.
• The company plans to create only three to five more such animals. Thus, these dire wolves may become only the second species in history to be brought back to life briefly — the first being the bucardo, a Pyrenean mountain goat that was cloned and died shortly after birth.

Conclusion

• Colossal Biosciences’ dire wolf project marks a fascinating intersection of biotechnology, conservation, and ethics.
• While the achievement demonstrates the power of genetic science, it raises questions about what it truly means to bring a species back — and whether de-extinction can move beyond symbolism to genuine ecological restoration.

4) Andhra’s Aquaculture Faces US Tariff Shock

GS 3: Economy: Concern over Andhra’s fish farming community

Why is it in the news?

• Amid the US administration’s tariff hikes under President Donald Trump, Andhra Pradesh Chief Minister N. Chandrababu Naidu has written to the Centre seeking intervention to shield the state’s aqua exports.
• Naidu urged that products like shrimp be exempted from the newly imposed duties, fearing significant economic disruption for Andhra’s fish farming community.

Why Andhra is Concerned

• Andhra Pradesh is one of India’s largest exporters of shrimp and fish to the United States. The aqua industry in the state typically operates on slim profit margins of 5–6%.
• The US has imposed a steep 27% tariff on Indian aqua exports, in addition to a 5.77% countervailing duty and a 1.38% anti-dumping duty by the US Department of Commerce.
• These additions would sharply increase export costs. In contrast, Ecuador—a key competitor—faces only a 10% tariff, putting Indian exporters at a significant disadvantage.

Effect on Andhra’s Aquaculture Sector

• To remain profitable under the new tariffs, Indian exporters would need to raise product prices, making their shrimp and fish less competitive compared to Ecuador, Vietnam, and Taiwan. If exports decline, production would have to be curtailed, directly affecting over 5 lakh aqua farmers in Andhra Pradesh, particularly in the erstwhile East and West Godavari districts.
• The drop in prices would reduce profit margins and could lead to job losses in ancillary sectors like cold storage, processing, and packaging.

Growth and Importance of Andhra’s Aquaculture

• Andhra Pradesh is India’s leading aqua producer, contributing 0.94 million tonnes — 76% shrimp and 24% fish — to the national total of 1.84 million tonnes in 2023–24. The sector gained momentum in the last two decades with government subsidies and support. Following the state’s bifurcation in 2014, both TDP and YSRCP governments promoted aquaculture.
• This led many agricultural farmers, especially in the Godavari and Krishna regions and Nellore, to convert their lands into shrimp farms. The sector has also driven the growth of cold storage units, processing centres, and packaging facilities, generating substantial employment.

Andhra’s Seafood Export Figures

• As per the Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA), Andhra Pradesh exported 347,927 tonnes of seafood valued at USD 2.369 billion in 2023–24.
• According to the Union Ministry of Commerce and Industry, India exported an all-time high of 17.82 lakh metric tonnes of seafood worth USD 7.38 billion (Rs 60,523.89 crore) in 2023–24. Frozen shrimp alone made up 92% of this value, with a significant portion originating from Andhra.

Government’s Vision for the Sector

• The Naidu-led government has identified the aqua sector as a major growth engine for achieving inclusive, double-digit economic growth.
• At the recent Aquatech-2.0 conclave, the CM noted that the state currently has about four lakh acres under aquaculture, and plans to expand this to 10 lakh acres by 2029–30. The fisheries sector currently contributes nearly 8% to Andhra’s Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP).

A Vital Contributor to State GDP

• TDP MP L. Sri Krishna Devarayalu informed Parliament that seafood and aqua exports contribute around 11% to Andhra Pradesh’s GDP and support approximately 8 lakh farmers directly and indirectly.
• The state earns around Rs 3.5 billion annually from seafood exports, but the rising competition from Ecuador due to lower tariffs poses a significant threat.

India’s Frozen Shrimp Dominance

• Frozen shrimp remains India’s top seafood export. In 2023–24, the country exported 7,16,004 MT of frozen shrimp, earning Rs 40,013.54 crore (USD 4.88 billion), accounting for 40.19% of export quantity and 66.12% of dollar earnings.
• The USA was the largest importer with 2,97,571 MT, followed by China, the EU, Southeast Asia, Japan, and the Middle East. Other key exports include Black Tiger shrimp, Scampi, Vannamei shrimp, frozen squid, Surimi, Surimi Analogs, and frozen cuttlefish.
• Frozen fish, the second-largest export item, contributed Rs 5,509.69 crore (USD 671.17 million), with a 21.42% share in quantity.

5) UNCTAD’s Technology and Innovation Report 2025

GS 3: Science and Technology: Inclusive AI for Global Development

Why is it in the news?

• The Technology and Innovation Report 2025 was recently released by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), spotlighting the global progress and challenges in artificial intelligence (AI), especially in the context of developing nations.

About the Report

• This flagship report by UNCTAD delves into major global issues related to science, technology, and innovation. It aims to provide actionable insights and recommendations for policymakers, particularly in developing countries.
• The 2025 edition is centred on the theme “Inclusive Artificial Intelligence for Development,” advocating for wider access and equitable participation in AI advancements.

Key Global Takeaways

• The report highlights that developed nations continue to lead in tech readiness, but emerging economies such as India, China, and Brazil are performing well beyond their income brackets. The AI industry is projected to grow significantly, reaching USD 4.8 trillion by 2033, accelerating the pace of digital transformation worldwide.
• A small group of 100 corporations, mostly from the U.S. and China, account for 40% of global corporate R&D investments. The rise of AI is expected to impact 40% of jobs globally, prompting concerns over automation and potential job losses.
• In terms of AI investments, the U.S. leads with USD 67 billion, followed by China (USD 7.8 billion) and India (USD 1.4 billion). Alarmingly, 118 countries, predominantly from the Global South, are currently not part of international AI governance frameworks, reflecting a significant AI governance gap.

India’s Advancing Role in AI

• India has significantly improved its global standing, climbing to the 36th position in the Readiness for Frontier Technologies Index in 2024, up from 48th in 2022. With USD 1.4 billion in AI investment, India now ranks 10th globally.
• The country also has a vast and growing AI talent base, with 13 million developers, many of whom contribute to open-source communities like GitHub.
• The India AI Mission (2024) is a major step toward fostering AI innovation, involving partnerships between the government, private industry, and academic institutions. India is also a frontrunner in nanotechnology, and institutions such as IIT Hyderabad and IIT Kharagpur are home to Centres of Excellence focused on artificial intelligence.

Conclusion

• UNCTAD’s Technology and Innovation Report 2025 underscores the need for inclusive AI development and governance.
• As India strengthens its position through investments, talent, and strategic initiatives, the global community must ensure that the benefits of AI are shared widely and equitably across all regions.

6) PM Modi’s Sri Lanka Visit

GS 2: International Relations: India- S. Lanka Relations

Why is it in the news?

• Prime Minister Narendra Modi recently visited Sri Lanka and held a crucial bilateral meeting with Sri Lankan President Anura Dissanayake in Colombo.
• The visit marked a significant step towards strengthening the multi-dimensional relationship between the two neighbouring countries.

Key Outcomes of the Visit

• During the visit, PM Modi was honoured with Sri Lanka’s highest civilian award, the ‘Mithra Vibhushana’, by the Sri Lankan government. Both sides signed several key agreements aimed at deepening bilateral cooperation. One major highlight was an agreement to develop Trincomalee as a regional energy hub.
• Additionally, the two leaders jointly inaugurated the Sampur solar power project, designed to enhance Sri Lanka’s clean energy capacity. A landmark grid interconnectivity agreement was also signed, paving the way for Sri Lanka to potentially export electricity to India.
• In terms of infrastructure, the leaders jointly inaugurated the upgraded northern railway line between Maho and Omanthai, which improves connectivity between the North Central and Northern Provinces. The Anuradhapura railway station also saw the unveiling of a modernized railway signalling system.
• On the defence front, a comprehensive Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed to consolidate existing agreements into a single framework, thus facilitating structured and consistent defence dialogue.

Trade and Investment Relations

• India and Sri Lanka share robust trade ties, significantly strengthened by the India-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement (ISFTA) signed in 2000. India continues to be one of Sri Lanka’s largest trading partners, and vice versa, particularly within the SAARC region.
• Additionally, India stands as one of the top contributors of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Sri Lanka, underscoring the economic interdependence of the two nations.

Cultural and People-to-People Ties

• The cultural relationship between India and Sri Lanka is rooted in historical and religious connections.
• The Cultural Cooperation Agreement signed in 1977 serves as the foundation for periodic Cultural Exchange Programmes. Shared Buddhist and Tamil heritage continues to enhance people-to-people connectivity and India’s soft power in the island nation.

Tourism and Connectivity

• India has traditionally been the leading source of tourist arrivals in Sri Lanka, followed closely by China. According to the latest statistics from the Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority, India remained the largest inbound tourism market for Sri Lanka in 2023. This trend reflects the strong travel and cultural bonds between the two countries.

Maritime Security and Defence Cooperation

• India and Sri Lanka have steadily enhanced maritime and defence cooperation. The Colombo Security Conclave, established in 2011, aims to boost regional maritime security in the Indian Ocean Region.
• Both nations also engage in multiple joint military and naval exercises, including ‘Mitra Shakti’, the trilateral maritime exercise ‘Dosti’, and the bilateral naval exercise ‘SLINEX’.

Multilateral and Regional Engagements

• India and Sri Lanka actively collaborate within various regional and multilateral platforms such as SAARC, BIMSTEC, South Asian Economic Union, and the South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme. These forums help strengthen cultural, environmental, and commercial cooperation across South Asia.

Challenges in the Bilateral Relationship

• Despite strong ties, several challenges persist. The issue of fishermen crossing maritime boundaries remains contentious, often leading to arrests and diplomatic strain.
• Additionally, China’s growing strategic investments in Sri Lanka, including the 99-year lease of the Hambantota Port, raise security concerns for India. Trade-related negotiations, particularly on the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA), have stalled, creating an imbalance in economic cooperation.
• Developmental projects funded by India, such as the Jaffna Cultural Centre, Trincomalee Oil Tank Farm, and various housing schemes, continue to face bureaucratic and administrative delays.
• Furthermore, the 2022 economic crisis in Sri Lanka triggered domestic unrest, leading to refugee inflows and economic spillovers in southern India, especially along the Tamil Nadu coast.

Way Forward

• India–Sri Lanka ties, deeply anchored in geography, culture, and history, must progress towards greater strategic alignment, shared economic growth, and people-centric development.
• The recent agreements and initiatives under PM Modi’s visit reflect a move towards this vision. Strengthened bilateral relations will not only ensure mutual benefits but also promote regional stability, aligning with India’s “Neighbourhood First” policy and the SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) doctrine.

7) UNHRC Resolution Links Plastic Pollution with Human Rights and Ocean Protection

GS 3: Environment and Biodiversity: Towards a sustainable environment

Context

• The United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) has recently adopted a landmark resolution that recognizes the vital interconnection between plastic pollution, ocean protection, and the human right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment.

Key Features of the Resolution

• The resolution highlights the compounded threat posed by plastic pollution, climate change, and biodiversity loss, which together endanger the planet’s health and the rights of future generations.
• It emphasizes that coastal populations and small island developing states are particularly vulnerable to the consequences of ocean degradation and natural disasters.
• A key emphasis of the resolution is the promotion of a human rights-based approach to ocean governance, focusing on inclusive policies and protective measures for at-risk communities.

Alignment with Previous UN Declarations

• This resolution builds on earlier international recognitions, including the UN Human Rights Council’s 2021 acknowledgment of the right to a healthy environment and the 2022 UN General Assembly resolution affirming the same.
• It is strongly informed by findings from the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to a Healthy Environment, lending it both moral and legal weight in the global context.

Extent of Plastic Pollution

• Plastic waste continues to be a major environmental concern worldwide. Current estimates suggest that more than 11 million metric tons of plastic enter the oceans annually. If corrective actions are not taken, this figure could potentially triple by 2040, causing irreversible damage to marine biodiversity.
• A significant contributor to this pollution is single-use plastic items, such as packaging and disposable products. Plastic debris not only damages coral reefs and marine habitats but also poses a serious threat to aquatic species by entangling or poisoning them.

Global Relevance and Future Initiatives

• The resolution sets the stage for significant upcoming events, particularly the UN Ocean Conference to be held in Nice, France in June 2025, and the final round of negotiations for a global treaty to end plastic pollution in Geneva in August 2025.
• Experts believe this resolution will elevate human rights considerations in the formation of future international agreements addressing plastic and ocean pollution.
• Moreover, the resolution advocates for integrating Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 – Life Below Water – with other related goals focused on poverty eradication, gender equality, health, and climate justice.

Call for Multi-Stakeholder Action

• Governments, industries, and civil society are urged to incorporate human rights obligations into environmental legislation and treaty frameworks. This comprehensive call to action is expected to influence policy design and promote accountability in addressing environmental challenges.

Recognition of Environmental Rights in India

• India’s legal and constitutional framework already reflects the importance of a healthy environment. The right to a clean and safe environment is interpreted as part of Article 21 of the Indian Constitution, which guarantees the right to life and personal liberty.
• The Directive Principles of State Policy further reinforce environmental protection—Article 48A mandates the state to safeguard the environment, while Article 51A(g) imposes a fundamental duty on citizens to conserve natural resources including forests, rivers, and wildlife.

Judicial Role in Upholding Environmental Rights

• The Indian judiciary has played a proactive role in reinforcing environmental rights through landmark judgments such as MC Mehta v. Union of India and Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar.
• The courts have upheld critical environmental principles such as the polluter pays doctrine, the precautionary principle, and sustainable development as part of the fundamental rights framework, thereby strengthening legal safeguards for environmental protection in India.

8) Iron’s Unexpected Opacity: Rethinking Solar Models and Stellar Physics

GS 3: Science and Technology: Understanding Sun’s internal dynamics  

Why is it in the news?

• Recent studies have highlighted a critical gap in our understanding of the Sun’s internal dynamics — the opacity of iron may have been significantly underestimated in traditional solar models. This has major implications for how scientists interpret the Sun’s structure and its influence on astrophysical theories.

Defining Opacity in Stellar Environments

• In astrophysical terms, opacity refers to a material’s capacity to absorb radiation. The higher the opacity, the less light passes through. This property is essential in determining how energy travels from a star’s core to its surface.
• A notable 2015 experiment suggested that iron’s opacity under solar conditions could be between 30% and 400% greater than previously predicted, prompting a re-evaluation of standard solar models.

Iron’s Influence on Solar Dynamics

• Though iron exists in relatively small quantities in the Sun, it plays an outsized role due to its high opacity. This affects the solar temperature gradient, the way energy is transmitted within the star, and how sound waves propagate inside it — all key factors in understanding stellar behaviour.
• Since solar models form the basis for simulating other stars, any miscalculation can distort broader astrophysical theories on stellar evolution and the cosmos.

Implications for Future Predictions

• With updated opacity values, scientists expect to refine models that predict phenomena such as solar neutrino output, sunspot formation, and solar flare cycles.
• These findings could also enhance our grasp of how stars age and maintain energy balance, contributing to more accurate models of distant celestial bodies.

Significance for Scientific Modelling

• This breakthrough illustrates how even small discrepancies in scientific assumptions can lead to large-scale errors in theoretical frameworks.
• As researchers develop better tools to replicate extreme solar conditions and gather more precise data, they move closer to constructing more accurate models of the Sun and the universe.

Structural Composition of the Sun

• Core: The innermost part of the Sun where intense pressure and temperature drive nuclear fusion, converting hydrogen into helium and releasing vast energy.
• Radiative Zone: Energy generated in the core moves outward through this layer via radiation, gradually making its way to the surface.
• Convection Zone: In this outer layer, energy is carried by convection currents, where hot gases rise, cool near the surface, and then sink again.
• Photosphere: The visible “surface” of the Sun, consisting of dense gases that emit sunlight, though it lacks a solid boundary.
• Chromosphere: A less dense layer above the photosphere, typically visible during solar eclipses or with specialized filters.
• Corona: The Sun’s outermost layer, made up of superheated, low-density plasma, extending millions of kilometres and visible during total eclipses.

9) Revised Guidelines for Foreign Funding under FCRA

GS 3: Economy: Updated guidelines regarding foreign contributions

Why is it in the news?

• The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) has introduced a significant change regarding the utilization timeline for foreign contributions received under the prior permission route of the Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act (FCRA), 2010.
• According to the updated guidelines, such funds must now be used within four years from the date of approval. Earlier, organizations were allowed to use the funds until they were completely exhausted, without a fixed deadline.

Overview of the FCRA Framework

• The FCRA was first introduced in 1976 and later amended in 2010 and 2020 to regulate the acceptance and use of foreign donations. It mandates that NGOs and other associations must obtain registration if they wish to receive foreign funds for purposes such as education, healthcare, culture, religion, or social work.
• Once granted, registration is valid for five years and can be renewed. Additionally, entities must submit annual returns detailing the receipt and usage of foreign funds, much like income tax submissions.
• In 2015, the MHA implemented rules to ensure that foreign donations are not used in a manner that harms India’s sovereignty, integrity, public order, or diplomatic relations.

Restrictions and Exceptions

• Under the Act, certain categories of individuals and entities are barred from accepting foreign contributions. These include legislators, government officials, judges, political parties, and members of the media.
• However, a 2017 amendment made an exception by allowing political parties to receive funds from foreign companies that either have Indian subsidiaries or are majority-owned (over 50%) by Indian entities.

Suspension and Cancellation Conditions

• If an organization is found to be violating FCRA provisions, its registration can be temporarily suspended for up to 180 days. During this suspension period, it is prohibited from accepting fresh donations and can use only up to 25% of its existing foreign funds, subject to prior approval from the MHA. In the case of cancellation, the concerned organization cannot reapply for registration or permission for the next three years.

Salient Features of the New Guidelines

• The latest amendment stipulates that all funds received through prior permission must be utilized within four years. Any delay or non-compliance will be treated as a violation of the FCRA and may invite penal action.
• For existing cases where prior permission was already granted, and more than three years remain for the approved project as of April 7, 2025, the new time limits will begin from April 7, 2025—three years to receive the funds and four years to utilize them.
• Organizations not eligible for full FCRA registration can still seek prior permission for specific projects, provided they are registered under Indian legal frameworks such as the Societies Registration Act, 1860; the Indian Trusts Act, 1882; or Section 25 of the Companies Act, 1956.

Significance of FCRA in Governance

• The FCRA serves as a safeguard to prevent the misuse of foreign contributions for activities that may harm national interests.
• It plays a vital role in monitoring foreign donations, ensuring transparency in fund management, and avoiding external influence in political or civil society operations.
• The law also aims to curb money laundering and illicit financial flows from abroad, thereby promoting financial integrity and national security.

10) Dokra Art

GS 1: Culture and History: Ancient Tribal Metal Craft of India

Why is it in the news?

• PM Narendra Modi recently gifted a Dokra Brass Peacock Boat with a Tribal Rider to the Prime Minister of Thailand, showcasing India’s traditional tribal craftsmanship on the global stage.

Historical Roots

• Dokra art is one of the oldest known forms of metal casting in India, with origins tracing back over 4,000 years to the Indus Valley Civilization. The iconic Dancing Girl figurine from Mohenjo-daro is a classic example of this ancient technique.
• The name “Dokra” is believed to be derived from the Dhokra Damar tribal community of West Bengal, who have preserved this craft through generations.

Artistic Method

• A distinctive aspect of Dokra art is the lost wax casting process, where artisans create a model in wax, cover it with clay to form a mold, and then replace the wax with molten metal.
• Since the mold is broken after each casting, every artifact is uniquely handcrafted and cannot be replicated.

Geographical Recognition

• In 2008, the Dokra craft of Bankura district in West Bengal was awarded the Geographical Indication (GI) tag, acknowledging its cultural significance and regional identity. This form of metalwork is also practiced in tribal regions of Odisha, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh.