1) Ten Years of Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana

GS 2: Polity and Governance: Ensuring grassroot entrepreneurship

Context

• On 8 April 2025, India marks the 10th anniversary of the Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana (PMMY), the flagship scheme launched to fund the unfunded micro enterprises and small businesses. By eliminating the need for collateral and simplifying access to credit, the scheme laid the groundwork for a new wave of grassroots entrepreneurship.
• PMMY provides institutional credit to non-corporate, non-farm micro and small enterprises—the very backbone of the Indian economy. At its heart, the MUDRA Yojana is a story of trust: trust in people’s aspirations and in their capability to build something meaningful. It represents a belief that even the smallest dreams deserve an opportunity to grow.

Key Achievements of PMMY

• Since its inception in April 2015, PMMY has sanctioned over 52 crore loans worth ₹32.61 lakh crore, sparking an entrepreneurial revolution across the country.
• Growth in business is no longer limited to metropolitan cities—it is now reaching small towns and villages where first-time entrepreneurs are taking control of their futures. A major change in mindset is also visible, with people transitioning from job seekers to job creators.

MSME Credit Boom and a Stronger Ecosystem

• A recent SBI report shows a remarkable rise in credit flow to MSMEs, largely propelled by PMMY. Lending to the MSME sector grew from ₹8.51 lakh crore in FY14 to ₹27.25 lakh crore in FY24, and is expected to exceed ₹30 lakh crore in FY25.
• The share of MSME credit in total bank credit rose from 15.8 percent in FY14 to nearly 20 percent in FY24, underscoring its growing economic role. This access to formal finance has enabled businesses, especially in smaller towns and rural regions, to grow and create jobs, contributing to a self-reliant and inclusive economy.

Women Empowerment through Financial Inclusion

• One of PMMY’s most significant impacts has been on women entrepreneurs, who account for 68 percent of all Mudra beneficiaries. Between FY16 and FY25, the average loan amount per woman grew at a CAGR of 13 percent to reach ₹62,679, while per woman incremental deposits grew at a CAGR of 14 percent, touching ₹95,269.
• States with higher loan disbursal to women have also seen stronger employment generation through women-led MSMEs. This trend confirms that targeted financial inclusion is a powerful tool for enhancing women’s economic participation.

Inclusion of Socially Marginalised Communities

• PMMY has also played a pivotal role in expanding credit access to marginalised communities. As per the SBI report, 50 percent of Mudra accounts are held by SC, ST, and OBC entrepreneurs, ensuring a more equitable distribution of institutional finance.
• Additionally, 11 percent of loan holders are from minority communities. This highlights PMMY’s inclusive nature and its contribution to integrating marginalised groups into the formal economy.

Progressive Lending: From Shishu to Tarun

• Over the past decade, PMMY has enabled the creation of over 52 crore loan accounts, marking a surge in entrepreneurial momentum. The share of Kishor loans (₹50,000 to ₹5 lakh) has significantly increased—from just 5.9 percent in FY16 to 44.7 percent in FY25—indicating the graduation of businesses from micro to small enterprises.
• The Tarun category (₹5 lakh to ₹10 lakh) is also growing, illustrating that the scheme is not just helping people start businesses, but is also aiding them to scale up.

Scaling Up with Bigger Loans

• An analysis of the loans sanctioned and disbursed under PMMY reveals a steady increase in the average loan size—up from ₹38,000 in FY16 to ₹72,000 in FY23, and further to ₹1.02 lakh in FY25.
• This nearly threefold rise reflects greater economies of scale and a maturing entrepreneurial ecosystem. Loan disbursal saw a 36 percent jump in FY23 alone, signalling a strong revival in entrepreneurial confidence across the nation.

Leading States and Union Territories

• As of 28 February 2025, Tamil Nadu leads all states in terms of total Mudra loan disbursals with ₹3,23,647.76 crore. Uttar Pradesh follows with ₹3,14,360.86 crore, while Karnataka ranks third at ₹3,02,146.41 crore. West Bengal and Bihar are also significant contributors, with disbursals of ₹2,82,322.94 crore and ₹2,81,943.31 crore, respectively.
• Maharashtra stands sixth at ₹2,74,402.02 crore, reflecting the wide and balanced reach of the scheme. Among Union Territories, Jammu and Kashmir tops the list with ₹45,815.92 crore disbursed across 21,33,342 loan accounts, underlining the programme’s importance even in remote and sensitive regions.

Funding the Unfunded

• Micro enterprises are a crucial part of India’s economy, providing employment to nearly 10 crore people and ranking next only to agriculture in employment generation. These micro units include small businesses in manufacturing, processing, trading, and service sectors.
• Often owned by individuals or single proprietors, these enterprises are also known as Non-Corporate Small Businesses. They have long remained outside the purview of institutional finance, which is what PMMY has successfully addressed.

Mission, Vision, and Structure of PMMY

• Launched under the Micro Units Development and Refinance Agency (MUDRA), PMMY aims to support the development and refinancing of micro units.
• The scheme provides collateral-free loans of up to ₹20 lakh through Member Lending Institutions (MLIs), including Scheduled Commercial Banks (SCBs), Regional Rural Banks (RRBs), Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs), and Micro Finance Institutions (MFIs).
• The scheme has three loan categories: Shishu (up to ₹50,000), Kishor (₹50,000–₹5 lakh), and Tarun (₹5 lakh–₹10 lakh), catering to entrepreneurs at various stages of business growth.

International Recognition

• The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has consistently acknowledged the role of PMMY in advancing financial inclusion and entrepreneurship in India. In 2017, the IMF praised the scheme for enabling women-led enterprises to access credit and complementing PM Jan Dhan Yojana’s efforts to bank unbanked households.
• By 2019, the IMF recognised PMMY’s vital role in supporting financial institutions lending to micro-enterprises. In 2023, the IMF noted that collateral-free lending under PMMY had led to the rise of over 2.8 million women-owned MSMEs.
• Its 2024 assessment reaffirmed that India’s supportive policy framework, including PMMY, has been instrumental in driving self-employment and credit-led formalisation.

Conclusion

• In its ten-year journey, the Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana has proven the transformative power of financial inclusion and grassroots innovation. Before 2014, credit access was skewed towards the privileged, while small entrepreneurs struggled with complex procedures or depended on informal credit.
• PMMY stepped in to correct this imbalance, offering a clean, inclusive alternative. With more than 52 crore loans sanctioned, the scheme has empowered women, SC/ST/OBC entrepreneurs, and rural innovators by ensuring access to institutional credit.
• The rising loan sizes, increased share of MSME credit, and the trend of businesses scaling up reflect the deepening impact of PMMY. It continues to drive self-employment, job creation, and equitable growth, making it a cornerstone of India’s grassroots economic transformation.

2) Palna Scheme: Empowering Women Through Quality Childcare Under Mission Shakti

GS 2: Polity and Governance: Quality childcare services

Context

• The Palna Scheme, launched under the sub-scheme ‘Samarthya’ of ‘Mission Shakti’, addresses a growing need for quality child care services due to the rise in nuclear families and increased employment of women. As more women step into the workforce, either within or outside their homes, the demand for structured day-care services has risen.
• Traditionally managed within joint families, child care now requires formal, reliable support systems, particularly for children of working mothers. Palna provides crèche facilities that ensure children are cared for in a safe, nurturing environment, allowing mothers to engage in gainful employment without the burden of unpaid care work.
• The scheme supports the goals of the “Decent Work Campaign” and aligns with Sustainable Development Goal 8—Decent Work and Economic Growth.

Restructuring of the National Crèche Scheme

• In 2022, the erstwhile National Crèche Scheme was reorganized and renamed as the Palna Scheme, becoming a centrally sponsored initiative under the broader Mission Shakti framework.
• It operates on a funding ratio of 60:40 between the Centre and States/UTs with legislatures, while Northeastern and Special Category States follow a 90:10 ratio. For UTs without legislatures, the central government provides 100% funding. This model promotes state-level monitoring and effective implementation.

Objectives of the Palna Scheme

• The Palna Scheme aims to provide quality crèche facilities for children aged 6 months to 6 years, ensuring a safe and secure environment, nutritional support, health care, cognitive development, growth monitoring, and immunization. These facilities are accessible to all mothers, irrespective of their employment status.
• An additional objective is to ensure compliance with Section 11A of the Maternity Benefit Act, which mandates that establishments with 50 or more employees provide crèche services. States and UTs are encouraged to develop digital platforms in convergence with their Labour & Employment Departments to monitor and facilitate registration and compliance.

Integrated Package of Childcare Services

Palna delivers a comprehensive set of services in convergence with Mission Poshan 2.0, aimed at promoting early childhood care and development. These services include:

• Day care with sleeping arrangements
• Early stimulation activities for children below 3 years
• Pre-school education for children aged 3–6 years
• Supplementary nutrition sourced locally
• Growth monitoring, regular health check-ups, and immunization

Mandate Under Maternity Benefit Act

• To expand access to childcare, the Maternity Benefit Act has been amended to make it mandatory for establishments with 50 or more employees to set up crèches.
• This legislation supports working mothers and formalizes caregiving, previously considered unpaid domestic work.

Anganwadi-Cum-Crèche (AWCC) Model

• Palna operates two types of crèches—Standalone Crèches and Anganwadi-Cum-Crèches (AWCCs). Under Mission Shakti, each Standalone Crèche has a Creche Worker and a Creche Helper. In AWCCs, which integrate with existing Anganwadi Centres, an additional Creche Worker and Helper are assigned alongside Anganwadi staff.
• AWCCs are vital in increasing women’s workforce participation, especially in rural and underserved areas. The Ministry of Women and Child Development aims to set up 17,000 new AWCCs in 2024–25. As of March 2025, 11,395 AWCCs across 34 States/UTs have been approved.

Role of Crèche Workers

Crèche Workers under the supervision of Anganwadi Workers are responsible for:

• Providing sleep and rest facilities for children
• Maintaining personal hygiene and clean washrooms
• Assisting with toilet training and hygiene habits
• Coordinating health check-ups with ASHAs, PHCs, and AWWs
• Ensuring hygienic, age-appropriate food is prepared and served
• Following safety procedures for child handling and use of toys

Implementation and Beneficiary Data

• The scheme operates through intra-ministerial convergence with the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) and Poshan 2.0. It also aligns with labour and maternity legislation.
• As of February 2025, 1,761 AWCCs are operational, serving 28,783 beneficiaries, while 1,284 Standalone Crèches cater to 23,368 children across the country.

Crèche Timings and Flexibility

• Crèche operations under Palna are designed with flexibility to meet local requirements. Crèches remain open 26 days a month for 7.5 hours a day, tailored to the work schedules of mothers in the area. States and UTs have the liberty to fix timings based on local needs, ensuring maximum utility for working women.

Honorarium to Crèche Workers

• Crèche Workers and Helpers under Palna are honorary workers, not salaried staff. However, they are provided honorarium as per guidelines, which varies by the type of crèche.
• States and UTs are allowed to offer additional top-up honorarium from their own funds. There is no restriction from the Centre regarding such state-level contributions.

Infrastructure and Accessibility

• To maintain individual attention and quality care, each crèche is limited to a maximum of 25 children. Crèches must be located close to the residential areas or workplaces of the mothers, ideally within a 0.5–1 km walking distance.
• This proximity promotes parental engagement and provides quick access in emergencies or during regular drop-off and pick-up routines.

Conclusion

• The Palna Scheme under Mission Shakti plays a pivotal role in enabling women’s participation in the workforce by relieving them of unpaid caregiving responsibilities.
• It offers a safe, developmentally appropriate, and nurturing environment for children aged 6 months to 6 years, backed by robust convergence with ministries, flexibility to adapt locally, and a strong legislative framework.
• By supporting early childhood care and empowering working mothers, Palna fosters an inclusive, gender-sensitive, and equitable society.

3) India Launches First Digital Threat Report 2024 for BFSI Sector

GS 3: Economy: Ensuring Cybersecurity

Why is it in the news?

• In a significant move to bolster cybersecurity in the Banking, Financial Services, and Insurance (BFSI) sector, the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology’s Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In), in collaboration with CSIRT-Fin and global cybersecurity firm SISA, has released the Digital Threat Report 2024.
• This landmark report provides a comprehensive assessment of both existing and emerging cyber threats, along with strategic defense mechanisms tailored for the BFSI domain.

Rising Digital Threat Landscape

• With digital payments in India projected to hit $3.1 trillion by 2028—constituting 35% of total banking revenues—the BFSI sector’s rapid digital expansion has led to an increased attack surface for cybercriminals.
• The Digital Threat Report 2024 addresses this challenge by offering a holistic view of sector-wide cyber risks, emphasizing the urgent need for proactive, intelligence-driven cybersecurity strategies.
• The collaborative nature of the initiative underscores the importance of partnerships between national agencies and private cybersecurity firms in mitigating digital threats.

Multi-Dimensional Intelligence for Cybersecurity

• The report integrates real-world cybersecurity insights from three critical sources: SISA’s forensic investigations, CERT-In’s national cybersecurity monitoring, and CSIRT-Fin’s financial sector-specific incident response.
• This multi-layered intelligence provides a detailed picture of key attack vectors, evolving adversarial tactics, and persistent vulnerabilities. In addition to identifying threats, the report presents actionable recommendations to strengthen cybersecurity across people, processes, and technology.

A Blueprint for Sectoral Resilience

• The Digital Threat Report 2024 goes beyond analysis. It serves as a strategic guide for financial institutions, regulators, and cybersecurity professionals to build long-term resilience.
• It addresses pressing challenges such as AI-driven cyberattacks, sophisticated fraud mechanisms, and growing compliance demands. By offering forward-looking insights and encouraging collective preparedness, the report enables stakeholders to stay ahead of evolving risks.

Securing the Financial Ecosystem

• The report highlights that in today’s interconnected world, cybersecurity is not limited to protecting individual institutions but extends to securing entire ecosystems. As threats evolve rapidly, collaboration and intelligence-sharing are key to timely detection, response, and recovery.
• The initiative also affirms India’s commitment to setting global benchmarks in financial cybersecurity and ensuring that the country’s digital financial infrastructure remains secure, trusted, and resilient.

About SISA

• SISA is a global forensics-driven cybersecurity solutions provider focused on the digital payments industry. With a client base exceeding 2,000 organizations across over 40 countries, SISA offers human-centric and intelligence-led security solutions.
• By leveraging forensic insights and cutting-edge technology, SISA helps businesses strengthen their cybersecurity posture and achieve robust digital resilience.

4) Breakthrough Prize 2025

GS 3: Science and Technology: Recognising Global Scientific Excellence

Why is it in the news?

• The 2025 Breakthrough Prize, popularly known as the “Oscars of Science,” was announced on April 5 in its 11th edition. These prestigious awards, aimed at celebrating scientists and inspiring future generations, were launched in 2013.
• This year, 13,508 physicists involved in four collaborative projects at CERN received the Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics. The ceremony took place in Santa Monica, California, and was attended by Hollywood celebrities and global tech leaders.

About the Breakthrough Prize

• Founded by Mark Zuckerberg and Priscilla Chan, Sergey Brin, Anne Wojcicki, and Yuri and Julia Milner, the Breakthrough Prize recognises top scientists in the fields of Life Sciences, Mathematics, and Fundamental Physics.
• It aims to honour exceptional scientific achievements and encourage young scientists by showcasing science as a heroic and impactful pursuit. Each prize carries a monetary reward of $3 million.

Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences Three significant contributions were recognised under this category:

• Development of Weight-loss Drugs: Five scientists — Daniel J. Drucker, Joel Habener, Jens Juul Holst, Lotte Bjerre Knudsen, and Svetlana Mojsov — were honoured for discovering and characterising the GLP-1 hormone. This research led to the development of breakthrough drugs like Ozempic and Wegovy, used for treating diabetes and obesity.
• Multiple Sclerosis Treatment: Alberto Ascherio and Stephen L. Hauser were awarded for identifying the role of B-cells in Multiple Sclerosis (MS) and developing targeted therapies. Their work also confirmed Epstein-Barr virus as the leading cause of MS.
• Advances in Gene-editing Technologies: David R. Liu received the award for developing base editing and prime editing technologies. These innovations allow precise DNA modifications without cutting the double helix, enabling correction of genetic defects.

Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics

• This year, four major collaborations at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider (LHC) — ALICE, ATLAS, CMS, and LHCb — were recognised. The prize honoured their work on the Higgs boson, a fundamental particle that imparts mass to others. Their research enhanced understanding of particle physics, including mass generation and the strong nuclear force, and confirmed theoretical models of the universe’s early moments.
• The prize citation acknowledged their “detailed measurements of Higgs boson properties confirming the symmetry-breaking mechanism of mass generation, the discovery of new strongly interacting particles… and the exploration of nature at the shortest distances and most extreme conditions.”
• ATLAS and CMS teams received $1 million each, while ALICE and LHCb were awarded $500,000 each. The total prize recognises 13,508 co-authors from CERN who contributed to LHC Run-2 data between 2015 and July 15, 2024. The prize money will be managed by the CERN & Society Foundation and will support doctoral students from member institutions working at CERN.

Breakthrough Prize in Mathematics

• Dennis Gaitsgory was awarded the Mathematics Breakthrough Prize for his work on the geometric Langlands conjecture. This conjecture is part of the Langlands program, a broad research framework linking multiple branches of mathematics.
• Gaitsgory’s contribution involved using derived algebraic geometry to resolve key theoretical challenges, marking a milestone in mathematical research after three decades of effort.

Other Recognitions

• In addition to the main awards, six New Horizons Prizes, each worth $100,000, were awarded to eight early-career physicists and mathematicians for their promising contributions.
• Furthermore, three women mathematicians pursuing their PhDs received the Maryam Mirzakhani New Frontiers Prize, each with a $50,000 award, highlighting the prize foundation’s commitment to supporting women in science.

5) A Case for Fair Lok Sabha Seat Allocation

GS 2: Polity and Governance: Towards Equitable Representation

Context

• Article 1 of the Constitution declares India as a “Union of States.” The term “Union” implies that the formation and reformation of the component units of the nation must be based on equity.
• Concerns have recently grown, especially in the southern States, regarding the impending readjustment of Lok Sabha seats based on population data from the new Census.

An Analysis

Clarifying the Term: Delimitation vs Readjustment

• There is widespread confusion between delimitation and readjustment. Delimitation refers to fixing the boundaries of constituencies and is conducted by the Delimitation Commission after every Census.
• However, the current debate concerns the readjustment of the number of Lok Sabha seats as per Article 82 of the Constitution. This article mandates that after every Census, the seats in the Lok Sabha must be readjusted to reflect population changes.

Population Freeze Since 1971

• The present strength of the Lok Sabha (543 seats) was determined using the 1971 Census when India’s population was approximately 54.79 crore. Despite the population increasing to around 141 crore by March 2025, the number of seats has remained frozen at the 1971 level due to a constitutional amendment, which extended the freeze till 2026.
• This was done to give high-population growth States time to stabilise their numbers and prevent a political imbalance.

Population Growth Disparities Between North and South

• The north-south divide in population growth is stark. Uttar Pradesh’s population has risen from 8.38 crore in 1971 to 24.1 crore in 2025, while Bihar’s grew from 4.21 crore to 13.1 crore.
• In contrast, southern States like Kerala and Tamil Nadu successfully implemented family planning policies and registered significantly lower growth. For example, Kerala’s population increased by only 68% in the past five decades.

Impact on Seat Distribution

In 1971, each Lok Sabha seat roughly represented 10 lakh people, and this was uniform across major States. If current populations are considered under the same ratio:

• Uttar Pradesh would receive 240 seats (up from 80)
• Kerala would get 36 seats (up from 20)

If the ratio changes to 15 lakh people per constituency:

• Uttar Pradesh would get 160 seats
• Kerala would see a minor increase

Alternatively, if the Lok Sabha expands to 800 seats (matching the new Parliament chamber’s capacity), each constituency would have around 18 lakh people. In such a case:

• Kerala retains 20 seats
• Tamil Nadu gains 4
• Uttar Pradesh gains 54

Equity vs Rewarding Incompetence

• There is concern that States with poor population control may be “rewarded” with more Lok Sabha seats, gaining disproportionate political influence. This has triggered strong responses from southern States, with Tamil Nadu CM spearheading a campaign for fair delimitation.
• A recent joint conclave in Chennai, attended by southern CMs and the Punjab CM, suggests this could evolve into a significant political issue.

Need for a Rational Formula

• Articles 81 and 82 stipulate that seat allocation must be based on population. However, equity requires that population control efforts be acknowledged, not penalised. Using Kerala’s 68% population growth since 1971 as a benchmark can offer a balanced solution.

Applying this standard:

• Uttar Pradesh would get 134 seats (instead of 240)
• Kerala 34 (up from 20)
• Tamil Nadu around 66

This would raise the Lok Sabha’s strength to 912 while preserving inter-State balance and rewarding population control success.

Revisiting Article 81(2)(a)

• The proposed formula conflicts with Article 81(2)(a), which demands equal population-seat ratios across States. However, this provision has been effectively dormant since 1971. A formula created in 1950 may no longer serve present-day equity needs.

Conclusion: A Sensitive, Equitable Approach Needed

• The allocation of Lok Sabha seats is not merely a political issue but one rooted in the constitutional ideal of equity among federating units. It is crucial to balance population-based representation with incentives for responsible governance.
• Article 1’s vision of a Union of States should guide us toward a fair and inclusive formula for seat allocation that respects the federal spirit of the Constitution.

6) ESA’s Biomass Mission: Monitoring the World’s Forests

GS 3: Environment and Biodiversity: Status of Global Forests

Why is it in the news?

• The European Space Agency (ESA) is set to launch a new satellite mission named Biomass, which aims to map global forests and monitor their changes over time.
• Scheduled for launch on April 29, 2025, the satellite will be carried by the Vega C rocket from Europe’s spaceport in French Guiana. It will be placed in a sun-synchronous orbit (SSO) at an altitude of around 666 km, ensuring it remains in sync with the Sun for consistent data collection.
• The mission will provide vital information about the state of Earth’s forests and their role in the carbon cycle.

Objectives of the Biomass Mission

• Forests are crucial for the global carbon cycle as they absorb an estimated 16 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) annually and store about 861 gigatonnes of carbon in their vegetation and soil.
• However, there is currently a lack of comprehensive data on forest above-ground biomass and forest height at a global scale. The primary goal of the Biomass mission is to bridge this knowledge gap by collecting data that can help scientists better understand forest health, carbon storage, and changes in forest cover.
• This mission will also help track how carbon levels are fluctuating due to deforestation and increasing atmospheric CO2. In 2023 alone, 3.7 million hectares of tropical forests were lost, equivalent to losing ten soccer fields of forest every minute.
• This deforestation accounted for around six percent of the global carbon dioxide emissions in 2023, according to the World Resources Institute.

Significance of 3D Forest Imaging

• Simonetta Cheli, Director of Earth Observation Programmes at ESA, highlighted the importance of understanding the health, quality, and diversity of tropical forests, along with the amount of carbon they store.
• To gather this information, the Biomass satellite will generate 3D images from the forest canopy down to the roots, providing unprecedented insights into forest structure and composition.
• Beyond its primary focus on forests, the Biomass mission will also track ice sheet movement in Antarctica and produce digital terrain models of areas covered with dense vegetation, further broadening its contribution to Earth system science.

Technology and Instruments Onboard

• To achieve its goals, the Biomass satellite will use a synthetic aperture radar (SAR), which employs radar waves to create detailed maps of Earth’s surface. Specifically, it will operate in the long-wave P-band frequency range, with a wavelength of 70 cm.
• This capability allows it to penetrate forest canopies and measure carbon stored in tree trunks and on the forest floor. The satellite is the first in the world to be equipped with a P-band SAR and carries a massive 12-meter antenna to support its data collection.
• Shaun Quegan, lead scientist of the Biomass mission from the University of Sheffield, explained that the satellite will essentially “weigh” forests to estimate their carbon content. Since roughly half of the biomass weight is carbon, the satellite will help monitor the changing carbon balance and its exchange between forests and the atmosphere—an essential metric for climate science.

ESA’s Earth Explorer Programme

• The Biomass mission is the seventh under ESA’s Earth Explorer programme, which aims to enhance scientific understanding of Earth’s systems. These missions collect data about various components of the Earth, including the interior, cryosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, ionosphere, and land surface.
• The programme began with the Gravity field and steady-state Ocean Circulation Explorer (GOCE) in 2009, which operated until 2013 and contributed to studies in ocean circulation and Earth’s internal physics.
• The most recent mission before Biomass was EarthCARE (Earth Cloud Aerosol and Radiation Explorer), launched in May 2024. EarthCARE focuses on understanding Earth’s radiative balance, which is a key factor in climate regulation.

Conclusion

• ESA’s Biomass mission will significantly improve the understanding of global forest biomass, carbon storage, and environmental change.
• By employing advanced radar technology and focusing on forest ecosystems, the mission is expected to deliver critical data for climate monitoring and forest conservation efforts.

7) India’s Subsea Cable Infrastructure

GS 3: Economy: Strengthening internet connectivity

Why is it in the news?

• India is gradually scaling up its subsea cable infrastructure to strengthen its international internet connectivity. New projects such as Airtel’s 2Africa Pearls and the SEA-ME-WE-6 cable system are enhancing the country’s global bandwidth capacity.

What Are Subsea Cables?

• Subsea or undersea cables are fibre optic cables laid along the seabed to connect the internet infrastructure of different countries.
• These cables are protected with heavy insulation and house fibre optic threads to enable high-speed data transmission.
• They emerge at designated landing points and connect to terrestrial networks via landing stations.
• Globally, around 600 such cables exist.
• These systems carry nearly 90% of the world’s internet data, support 80% of global trade, and handle transactions worth $10 trillion.

India’s Current Subsea Cable Landscape

• India’s main hubs for international subsea cable landings are Mumbai and Chennai.
• A total of 17 international cables currently land in India, with 95% of them concentrated within a 6-kilometre stretch in Versova, Mumbai.
• India also operates two domestic cable systems:

1) Chennai–Andaman–Nicobar Islands (CANI)

2) Kochi–Lakshadweep Islands

• While India’s current bandwidth meets present needs, increasing digital demand may outpace existing capacity in the near future.
• India hosts just 1% of the world’s cable landing stations and is part of only 3% of global undersea cable systems, reflecting its limited role in the global digital network.

Key Challenges in Subsea Cable Deployment

• Geopolitical Vulnerabilities: Critical chokepoints like the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait in the Red Sea pose high risk. Past disruptions, such as Houthi attacks in 2024, have impacted cable operations.
• Route Limitations: Many cables align with old shipping lanes, which reduces route diversity and increases exposure to potential disruptions. A single major disruption could affect 25% of India’s internet traffic.
• Regulatory Hurdles: Installing subsea cables requires navigating nearly 51 different clearances from multiple ministries, including the Department of Telecom, Ministry of Home Affairs, and Ministry of Environment.
• According to Meta, 80% of project timelines are consumed by regulatory processes in Indian territorial waters.
• Lack of Repair Infrastructure: India does not have indigenous cable repair capabilities and relies on foreign ships, which can delay repair operations and increase vulnerability to extended outages.