1) Aatmanirbharta in Pulses: Challenges and Policy Measures

GS 3: Economy: Aatmanirbharta in Pulses

Why is it in the news?

• Finance Minister has launched a six-year ‘Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses’ with a focus on tur/arhar (pigeonpea), urad (black gram), and masoor (red lentil).
• The 2025-26 Union Budget has allocated ₹1,000 crore for this scheme, which includes MSP-based procurement and post-harvest warehousing solutions. The NAFED and NCCF will procure these pulses from registered farmers under agreements, ensuring support for domestic production.

Rising Imports and Reversal of Self-Reliance

• Despite previous gains in self-reliance, India’s pulses imports surged during April-November 2024, reaching $3.28 billion—56.6% higher than the $2.09 billion recorded in 2023. If this trend continues, imports for 2024-25 could touch $5.9 billion, surpassing the previous high of $4.24 billion in 2016-17.
• Earlier, between 2013-14 and 2016-17, pulses imports rose both in value (from $1.83 billion to $4.24 billion) and quantity (from 31.78 lakh tonnes to 66.09 lakh tonnes). However, after 2017-18, imports declined significantly, reaching a low of 24.96 lakh tonnes ($1.94 billion) in 2022-23.
• The five years from 2018-19 saw relative aatmanirbharta, but the trend reversed in 2023-24 due to drought, pushing imports to 47.38 lakh tonnes ($3.75 billion), with record shipments of masoor and a resurgence of matar.
• In 2024-25, imports have already touched 40 lakh tonnes, with tur/arhar crossing 10 lakh tonnes for the first time.

Trends in Domestic Production

• India’s pulses production increased from 192.55 lakh tonnes in 2013-14 to 273.02 lakh tonnes in 2021-22 but declined slightly to 260.58 lakh tonnes in 2022-23. This growth was largely driven by chana and moong.
• Chana production rose from 95.26 lakh tonnes in 2013-14 to 135.44 lakh tonnes in 2021-22 but fell to 122.67 lakh tonnes in 2022-23. Moong production increased from 14.56 lakh tonnes to 36.76 lakh tonnes during the same period, benefiting from short-duration varieties that mature in 50-75 days.
• These varieties, being photo-thermo insensitive, can be grown in multiple seasons, allowing farmers to harvest up to four crops per year.
• The government has also supported procurement, purchasing 25.56 lakh tonnes of chana in 2022-23 and 23.53 lakh tonnes in 2023-24, along with 4.08 lakh tonnes and 3.35 lakh tonnes of moong, respectively.

Extending Success to Other Pulses

• The government aims to replicate the success of chana and moong for tur/arhar, urad, and masoor. However, challenges remain.
• Tur/arhar, traditionally a 250-270-day crop with a yield of around 20 quintals per hectare, has seen breeding improvements, reducing its duration to 150-180 days with yields of 15-16 quintals per hectare.
• Despite these improvements, it remains a long-duration crop with lower yields, limiting cultivation mainly to the rainfed Marathwada-Vidarbha regions of Maharashtra and northern Karnataka.
• Achieving self-reliance would require hybrids that mature in 140-150 days, yield 18-20 quintals per hectare, and allow mechanical harvesting.

Policy Ambiguity and the Import Challenge

• The government encourages farmers to grow pulses instead of water-intensive crops like cereals and sugarcane. However, tur/arhar is currently selling at ₹7,300-7,400 per quintal in Maharashtra and Karnataka, below its MSP of ₹7,550. Moreover, the Centre extended duty-free imports of tur/arhar until March 31, 2026.
• Imports of other pulses like matar, masoor, urad, and desi chana also have zero duty, except for large kabuli chana (66% duty) and moong (restricted imports).
• Key import sources include Mozambique, Tanzania, Myanmar, Sudan, and Malawi for tur/arhar; Canada, Russia, and Turkey for matar; Australia and Canada for masoor; Australia and Tanzania for chana; and Myanmar for urad.

Way Forward

• With pulses production expected to recover from the 2023-24 drought-induced decline to 242.46 lakh tonnes, and retail dal inflation easing to 3.83% in December, the government faces a critical decision on import duties.
• Restoring tariffs to incentivize domestic production will be essential for sustaining near-aatmanirbharta in pulses while ensuring fair prices for farmers.

2) Trump’s New Tariffs: Impact on China and the US Economy

GS 2: International Relations: U.S. New tariffs on Chinese imports

Why is it in the news?

• President Donald Trump’s decision to impose new tariffs on Chinese imports has put Beijing in a difficult position. China must decide whether to ignore the tariffs or retaliate. A passive response could make the government appear weak, contradicting its propaganda that portrays China as a rising power and the US as a declining one.
• However, strong retaliation risks triggering a global trade war, which could hurt China more than the US. China’s trade surplus, which nearly touched $1 trillion last year, relies heavily on exports and factory construction. Disruptions in global trade could weaken this crucial sector of the Chinese economy.

China’s Initial Response

• China responded cautiously, with its Ministry of Commerce announcing plans to challenge the tariffs at the World Trade Organization (WTO). Although the WTO can investigate and criticize trade violations, it has lost much of its authority since 2019 due to the US blocking judicial appointments.
• Some in China had initially hoped Trump’s criticism would focus on other countries, but experts now anticipate further tensions. Further, the dean of the Institute of International Studies at Fudan University, has warned that given Trump’s team of China hawks, more conflicts are likely.

Escalation of Trade Tensions

• Recently, Trump imposed an additional 10% tariff on Chinese goods, alongside 25% tariffs on imports from Mexico and Canada. He also warned of further tariff hikes if these countries retaliated.
• In response, China’s Commerce Ministry stated that it would take “countermeasures to firmly safeguard its rights and interests” while also urging the US to strengthen cooperation. Since Trump’s re-election, China has not only retaliated but escalated tensions by imposing export restrictions on key materials.
• In December, Beijing banned the export of critical minerals like antimony and gallium to the US, a move that followed President Joe Biden’s expansion of American technology export curbs. For the first time, China also prohibited third-party countries from reexporting these minerals to the US, despite previously opposing such measures.

Risks for China in Retaliation

China faces two major risks if it escalates trade restrictions further:

1) First, multinational companies may stop investing in China and move their manufacturing operations elsewhere.

2) Second, further export restrictions could provoke an even stronger response from Trump, leading to an uncontrollable trade war.

• A similar situation occurred during Trump’s first term, when China retaliated against US tariffs in 2018 but quickly ran out of American exports to target. Since China exports nearly four times more to the US than it imports, it has fewer options for countermeasures.
• Although the two sides agreed to halt the escalation in January 2020, most tariffs remained in place.

Impact on the US Economy

• Some Chinese experts argue that tariffs will harm American consumers more than China by raising prices. Experts claim that over 90% of the increased tariffs were paid by US companies or consumers. However, Western economists believe the reality is more complex.
• In previous rounds of tariffs, some Chinese companies lowered their prices to maintain their market share in the US, absorbing part of the tariff costs. This strategy prevented American importers from switching suppliers.

Currency Depreciation and Trade Shifts

• Despite the new tariffs, China’s global exports grew by more than 12% last year in volume. However, due to price cuts, the dollar value of exports rose by only half as much.
• Additionally, China’s currency has weakened, and domestic prices for many goods have fallen, making Chinese products more competitive in foreign markets, including the US.
• Experts noted that exports to the US now account for a declining share of China’s total exports, as trade with developing countries has significantly increased. This diversification could help China mitigate the impact of Trump’s tariffs.

3) India’s Ethanol Push: Boosting Production and Reducing Oil Imports

GS 3: Economy: India’s Ethanol Strategy

Why is it in the news?

• Union Minister Nitin Gadkari announced that India will achieve its target of 20% ethanol blending with petrol within the next two months, a year ahead of schedule. This requires producing nearly 1,100 crore litres of fuel ethanol annually.

Sources of Fuel Ethanol

• The required ethanol will be sourced from sugar, high-grade molasses, Food Corporation of India (FCI) rice, broken rice, and maize.
• India’s ethanol distillery capacity has expanded to 1,600 crore litres due to government incentives and a stable market. Of this, sugar is expected to contribute around 400 crore litres in the 2024-25 ethanol year.
• India had closing sugar stocks of 80 lakh tonnes in October 2024, and out of the projected 315 lakh tonnes of sugar production next year, 40 lakh tonnes will be allocated for ethanol. Ethanol for non-fuel uses will come from low-grade molasses (C Heavy).
• The government has also reduced the price of FCI rice supplied to distilleries from ₹28 to ₹22.5 per kg. This will help produce 110 crore litres of ethanol this year.
• Additionally, maize is expected to contribute nearly 400 crore litres, a significant increase from near-zero ethanol production from maize before 2020. Several sugar distilleries have modified their facilities to use maize in the off-season.

The Role of Maize in Ethanol Production

• India’s maize production was traditionally just enough to meet the needs of the poultry sector, livestock feed, starch production, and human consumption. However, with restrictions on using sugar and high-quality molasses for ethanol, maize imports surged.
• From April to June 2024, maize imports were worth approximately ₹100 crore, and total imports for 2023-24 stood at $33 million. Ministry of Commerce data shows that maize imports from April to November 2024 reached $188 million.
• A promising ethanol market has encouraged farmers to cultivate more maize, particularly in Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh.
• For the 2024-25 ethanol year, India is expected to produce 42 million tonnes of maize, with nearly nine million tonnes allocated for ethanol production. This is expected to generate 350-400 crore litres of ethanol. With a strong kharif crop outlook, experts believe maize imports may not be necessary in the future.

Expanding Maize Cultivation

• Since 2020-21, when ethanol production was largely sugar-based, maize production has increased by six million tonnes in three years to meet ethanol demand. Currently, maize is being cultivated over 10% more area with higher yields.
• The shift to ethanol production has made maize a more profitable crop for farmers, leading to some diversion from traditional uses. However, experts argue that this will not disrupt the market since Distiller’s Dried Grains with Solubles (DDGS), a byproduct of ethanol production, can be used for poultry feed.

Economic and Sustainability Impact

• The sustainability of ethanol production depends on whether the increased focus on maize affects the production of other food grains. If managed well, ethanol production could significantly benefit India’s economy.
• Producing 100 crore litres of fuel ethanol translates to ₹6,000 crore in savings on oil imports, ensuring that the money stays within the domestic economy, benefiting farmers. For context, India’s total annual oil import bill stands at ₹10.5 lakh crore.

4) Amplifiers: Working Principles and Types

GS 3: Science and Technology: Working Mechanism of Amplifiers

Why is it in the news?

• Amplifiers are transformative devices that enhance electrical signals, playing a crucial role in entertainment, astronomy, search and rescue, and medical diagnostics.
• They enable the human voice to be heard by thousands, impacting public protests, political rallies, and communication systems.
• Their ability to amplify physical changes into electrical signals makes them essential in various fields, particularly in audio signal processing.

Understanding Microphones

• A microphone is a transducer that converts sound energy into electrical signals. Different types exist based on how they capture and process sound.
• Condenser microphones, commonly found in telephones and voice recorders, use capacitors to transduce audio signals. These microphones have two plates separated by a dielectric medium, creating an electric field that stores energy. One plate is replaced with a vibrating diaphragm, which alters the capacitance as sound waves strike it, generating an electrical signal.
• Once the microphone captures an audio signal, it is sent to a preamplifier (preamp), which boosts the signal by supplying additional energy while minimizing noise. The effectiveness of this amplification is measured by gain, which is the ratio of output to input.
• To reduce noise, impedance-matching is performed, aligning the impedance of the preamp with that of the source circuit. A mismatch results in signal distortion. Transistors act as the active components responsible for amplification.

Voltage Amplification Using Transistors

• Amplification in a bipolar junction NPN transistor involves three components: base, collector, and emitter. A small voltage applied between the base and emitter allows electrons to flow out of the emitter.
• The base is designed to direct most electrons toward the collector, generating a large collector current, typically 50 times higher than the base current. The collector is then supplied with a high voltage through a resistor, creating an amplified voltage output.
• The amplified signal retains its sinusoidal wave shape but with increased amplitude.

The Role of Power Stages in Amplification

• After preamplification, the signal undergoes further processing through driver and power stages. The driver stage stabilizes voltage while increasing current using transistors.
• The power stage enhances both voltage and current before the signal reaches the loudspeaker. Power amplifiers are categorized based on applications:

1) Class A & B: Used in basic sound systems and small studios.

2) Class AB: Preferred for home theatres and high-performance systems.

3) Class C: Used in radio-frequency transmission.

4) Class D: Common in public address systems.

• Each class has sub-variants optimized for specific performance characteristics such as high-power handling and frequency response.

Producing Loud Sounds in Loudspeakers

• The loudness of a speaker is determined by the power of the input signal. A loudspeaker consists of a voice coil, an external magnet, and a diaphragm.
• The voice coil, placed within the external magnet, generates a strong magnetic field when an electrical current passes through it. This field interacts with the external magnet, causing movement in the coil. The coil’s movement is transferred to the diaphragm, creating sound waves.
• A more powerful input signal, a stronger magnetic field, and a larger diaphragm enhance sound production. Smaller diaphragms produce high-frequency sounds, while larger ones generate lower frequencies, ensuring a balanced audio output.

5) Glacial Loss in Arunachal Pradesh: A Concerning Trend

GS 1: Geography: Glacial Retreat

Why is it in the news?

• A recent study has revealed that the eastern Himalayas in Arunachal Pradesh lost 110 glaciers over 32 years.
• Conducted by researchers from Nagaland University and Cotton University, the study found that glaciers covering 309.85 sq. km disappeared at a retreat rate of 16.94 sq. km between 1988 and 2020.
• This retreat exposed bedrock and led to the formation of glacial lakes, increasing the risk of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs).

Glacial Retreat and Climate Change

• Glacial retreat is a crucial indicator of global climate change, occurring when glaciers melt faster than fresh snow and ice can accumulate. The eastern Himalayas have already witnessed the consequences of GLOFs, with the 2023 Sikkim disaster killing at least 55 people and destroying a 1,200-megawatt hydropower project on the Teesta River.
• The increasing rate of glacier loss in Arunachal Pradesh raises concerns about similar disasters in the future.

Study Methodology and Findings

• The researchers used remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) to map glacier boundaries, even in debris-covered areas. Their study covered Tawang, Lohit, West Kameng, Kurung Kumey, Upper Siang, and Upper Dibang Valley districts. They also referenced the Randolph Glacier Inventory of Global Land Ice Measurements from Space.
• The study found that the number of glaciers decreased from 756 to 646 over 32 years, with glacial cover reducing by 309.85 sq. km from an initial 585.23 sq. km—a loss of more than 47%. Most of these glaciers are situated at an elevation of 4,500-4,800 metres above mean sea level.

Rising Temperatures and Future Risks

• The study highlighted that the eastern Himalayan region is warming at a rate higher than the global average. The temperature in the region has increased between 0.1°C and 0.8°C per decade, surpassing the global rise of 0.74°C over the last century.
• Projections suggest that by the end of the century, the region could experience a temperature rise of 5-6°C and a 20-30% increase in precipitation. These changes will likely accelerate glacial melting, further impacting water resources, biodiversity, and disaster risks in the region.

6) USAID: Understanding the Agency and Its Role in India

GS 2: International Relations: USAID Role in foreign policy

Why is it in the news?

• The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) has become the latest target in the Trump administration’s efforts to restructure the federal government.
• A week after President Donald Trump imposed a 90-day pause on foreign aid, his administration removed two top USAID security officials who refused to grant access to Elon Musk’s Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE) representatives.
• Musk has since called for USAID’s dissolution, labelling it a “criminal organization.” As of Monday evening (IST), the USAID website remains inaccessible.

Why Are Trump and Musk Targeting USAID?

• Trump and Musk’s focus on USAID aligns with their broader agenda of cutting government spending and reducing bureaucratic inefficiency.
• Trump campaigned on eliminating the “deep state” and downsizing the federal government, appointing Musk as the head of DOGE to streamline operations and slash $2 trillion in federal spending.
• Following Trump’s executive order for a temporary pause in federal funding, agencies were directed to reassess grants and programs.
• Although a federal judge temporarily blocked the order, the administration has continued targeting programs like Diversity, Equality, and Inclusion (DEI) initiatives and specific government agencies, including USAID.

What Does USAID Do?

• USAID is the primary humanitarian and development agency of the US government, funding NGOs, foreign governments, international organizations, and other US agencies for poverty alleviation, healthcare, and education initiatives. In FY2023, it managed over $43 billion in funds and assisted approximately 130 countries.
• The top 10 recipients of USAID funds in FY2023 were Ukraine, Ethiopia, Jordan, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Somalia, Yemen, Afghanistan, Nigeria, South Sudan, and Syria.
• The agency employed over 10,000 personnel, with two-thirds working overseas, excluding thousands of contractors vital for program execution. USAID operates more than 60 missions globally.
• Supporters argue that USAID is crucial for US influence abroad. Experts emphasize that the agency is a key national security tool, developed over 60 years, and cannot be easily rebuilt if dismantled.

USAID’s Historical Role in US Foreign Policy

• International development assistance has been central to US foreign policy since World War II, starting with the Marshall Plan, which helped rebuild Europe and prevent communism’s spread. During the Cold War, economic and technical aid became significant tools in US-Soviet competition.
• USAID was created in 1961, following concerns over a communist takeover in Latin America post-Cuban Revolution. President John F. Kennedy’s “Alliance for Progress” sought to strengthen democracy and economic development in the region, with USAID coordinating various aid initiatives.
• The agency was formally established through an executive order after Congress passed the Foreign Assistance Act in 1961.

USAID’s Role in India

• The US has provided aid to India since 1951, starting with the India Emergency Food Assistance Act signed by President Harry Truman. Over time, USAID’s focus in India shifted from emergency aid to infrastructure development, economic reforms, and social welfare programs.
• US assistance helped establish eight agricultural universities, the first Indian Institute of Technology, and 14 regional engineering colleges. It also supported India’s immunization, family planning, maternal and child health, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and polio programs.
• However, USAID’s aid to India often came with conditions. For example, in 1965, USAID provided a $67 million loan for a fertilizer plant in Chennai on the condition that a private American company manage distribution, limiting India’s government involvement.
• In 2004, India decided to reject foreign aid with conditions, leading to a gradual decline in US assistance. In FY2024, US aid obligations to India stood at $141 million, down from $153 million in 2023 and significantly lower than $208 million in 2001. This decline suggests that India is well-positioned to manage potential disruptions in USAID funding.
• While USAID funds crucial initiatives in India, they form only a minor part of the country’s overall social welfare spending.

7) Government Push for ELS Cotton Cultivation

GS 3: Economy: Promoting ELS Cotton

Why is it in the news?

• Union Finance Minister announced a five-year mission to enhance cotton farming productivity and sustainability, with a special focus on promoting extra-long staple (ELS) cotton varieties. This initiative aims to improve cotton quality and boost domestic production of this premium fibre.

What is ELS Cotton?

• Cotton is classified based on fibre length into short, medium, and long staple categories. Gossypium hirsutum, which makes up 96% of India’s cotton production, falls under the medium staple category with fibre lengths of 25-28.6 mm.
• In contrast, ELS cotton has fibre lengths of 30 mm and above, primarily derived from Gossypium barbadense, known as Egyptian or Pima cotton. Originally from South America, ELS cotton is mainly grown in China, Egypt, Australia, and Peru.
• In India, ELS cotton is cultivated in rainfed areas of Atpadi taluka in Maharashtra’s Sangli district and around Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu. This variety is highly valued for its superior quality, with high-end fabric brands blending it with medium staple cotton to enhance fabric quality.
• Currently, India imports around 20-25 lakh bales of cotton annually, of which more than 90% is ELS cotton.

Why is ELS Cotton Not Widely Grown in India?

• Despite its superior quality, Indian farmers have been reluctant to grow ELS cotton due to lower yields. While medium staple cotton yields 10-12 quintals per acre, ELS cotton produces only 7-8 quintals per acre, making it less attractive for farmers.
• Moreover, market linkages for ELS cotton are weak, preventing farmers from securing premium prices for their produce. Although the Minimum Support Price (MSP) for long staple cotton in 2024-25 was set at ₹7,521 per quintal, compared to ₹7,121 for medium staple cotton, the lack of a stable and profitable market discourages farmers from adopting ELS varieties.

How Can the Cotton Mission Help?

• The government’s Cotton Mission aims to provide scientific and technological support to address the challenges of low per-acre yields and pest attacks. Experts emphasize the need for advanced genetic modification (GM) technology to improve productivity.
• Farmers in Maharashtra have been demanding approval for herbicide-tolerant Bt (HtBT) cotton, which is currently illegal in India, as it would significantly improve weed management. Compared to India’s low per-acre yield, Brazil produces 20 quintals per acre, while China yields 15 quintals.
• Access to better seeds, timely agronomic guidance, and modern technology could help India increase cotton productivity and promote high-value ELS cotton cultivation.