Supreme Court Verdict on AMU’s Minority Status

GS 2: Polity and Governance: AMU’s Minority Tag

Why is it in the news?

• The Supreme Court recently addressed the minority status of Aligarh Muslim University (AMU), deciding in a 4-3 majority to apply a “holistic and realistic” approach to assess the minority character of educational institutions.
• While the ruling favours AMU’s chances of securing minority status, the final determination was left to a smaller bench.

Historical Context

• In 1967, the Supreme Court ruled in Azeez Basha v Union of India that AMU did not qualify as a minority institution under Article 30 of the Constitution, as it was established through an Act of the central legislature and not by the Muslim minority.
• In 1981, the government amended the AMU Act of 1920, asserting that the university was created by the Muslim community to promote its educational and cultural advancement.
• However, in 2006, the Allahabad High Court invalidated both the 1981 amendment and AMU’s 50% reservation for Muslim students in postgraduate medical courses. This decision was later challenged in the Supreme Court, which referred the matter to a seven-judge bench in 2019.

Constitutional Protections for Minority Institutions

• Under Article 30(1), minorities have the right to establish and administer educational institutions to preserve their culture and language.
• Minority Educational Institutions (MEIs) are also exempt from reservations for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) under Article 15(5).
• This status allows MEIs to reserve up to 50% of seats for minority students and provides more control over hiring and administration.

Defining “Minority Character”

• Chief Justice of India D.Y. Chandrachud, along with others outlined the criteria under Article 30(1) to define minority character. These include:

1) The primary purpose of establishing a minority institution should be preserving minority culture, though it need not be the sole purpose.

2) Admission of non-minority students does not alter the institution’s minority character.

3) Minority institutions can provide secular education without losing their status.

4) Minority institutions receiving state funding must avoid compulsory religious instruction; those fully state-funded cannot offer religious instruction but still retain minority status.

Test for Minority Status

• The Supreme Court devised a two-fold test to evaluate whether an institution qualifies as minority-based:

1) Establishment:

• This involves examining the origin of the institution, its foundational purpose, and the steps taken to bring the idea to fruition.
• Evidence might include correspondence, speeches, or documents illustrating community challenges and the need for the institution.
• Funding sources, land procurement, and government permissions also play a role in determining who established the institution.

2) Administration:

• While the administration need not be exclusively minority-led, it must support minority interests.
• Institutions established before the Constitution’s implementation in 1950 will be judged on their pre-1950 administrative practices to assess if government intervention affected their minority status.

Disputes on AMU’s Establishment and Administration

• AMU’s alumni association argued that AMU was created for the Muslim community, tracing its roots to Sir Syed Ahmad Khan’s 1877 foundation of Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental (MAO) College to uplift Muslims.
• Conversely, the government argued that MAO’s principal aim was Western arts and sciences and that non-Muslims contributed to its establishment.
• Regarding administration, the Centre highlighted that post-1951 amendments diluted AMU’s religious influence, allowing non-Muslim representation and state oversight.

Key Dates in AMU’s Legal History

• 1877: MAO College established by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan.
• 1920: MAO College renamed AMU under the AMU Act.
• 1950: Parliament designates AMU as an institution of national importance.
• 1951: AMU Act amended, allowing non-Muslim members in the governing body.
• 1967: SC rules AMU does not qualify as a minority institution in the Azeez Basha case.
• 1981: AMU Act amended to affirm its role in Muslim advancement.
• 2005: AMU reserves 50% of seats for Muslims in postgraduate medical courses.
• 2006: Allahabad HC strikes down the reservation policy and 1981 amendment.
• 2019: SC refers the issue to a seven-judge bench for a final determination.

Röntgen’s Discovery of X-Rays

GS 3: Science and Technology: X-rays

Why is it in the news?

• On the evening of November 8, 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, a physicist at the University of Würzburg in Germany, stumbled upon a revolutionary discovery. While investigating cathode rays and their light emissions, Röntgen noticed a nearby fluorescent screen glowing unexpectedly.
• This screen was positioned far enough from the cathode tube that it should have been unaffected, sparking Röntgen’s curiosity. Intrigued, he dedicated six weeks in his lab to understanding this mysterious glow, leading to a discovery that would transform modern science and medicine.

The Power of Penetrative Rays

• Röntgen’s experiments revealed that cathode rays impacting the glass tube emitted a new, invisible ray with exceptional penetrative abilities, which could be captured on photographic plates.
• He experimented with various materials — paper, wood, copper, aluminium, among others — finding that this new ray could pass through them with differing levels of success. Testing if the rays could penetrate flesh, he took a now-famous photograph of his wife’s hand, clearly showing her bones and the ring on her finger.
• This experiment foreshadowed the primary application of his discovery, which he documented in a paper titled “On a New Kind of Rays,” submitted to the Würzburg Physical-Medical Society on December 28, 1895. Röntgen named his discovery “X-radiation” after the mathematical symbol for the unknown.

Röntgen’s Enduring Legacy

• Röntgen’s discovery of x-rays led to profound medical advancements. By the 1930s and 1940s, x-ray machines were commonplace, even appearing in shoe stores across Europe, where customers could view their foot bones in real-time. This early widespread use occurred despite limited understanding of x-rays’ potential side effects.
• It wasn’t until 1912–1913, when physicist Max von Laue demonstrated x-ray diffraction by crystals, that x-rays were recognized as electromagnetic waves with a higher frequency than visible light.
• Von Laue’s work, which won him a Nobel Prize, helped elucidate the nature of x-rays, and later studies expanded understanding of their risks and led to safer medical applications.

X-Rays in Modern Medicine

• Today, x-rays remain central to diagnostic medicine. Röntgen’s discovery spurred the development of radiology, leading to advanced imaging techniques, including MRI, CT scans, ultrasound, and echocardiography, which are integral to modern healthcare.
• The legacy of x-rays extends well beyond Röntgen’s initial discovery, shaping the evolution of medical imaging and diagnostics that continue to save lives and advance medical science.

35 Years Later: The Fall of the Berlin Wall

GS 2: International Relations: Berlin Wall

Why is it in the news?

• On November 9, 1989, the Berlin Wall, a symbol of Cold War division, fell unexpectedly when East German border guards, confused by an announcement about eased travel restrictions, opened the gates.
• A flood of East and West Berliners reunited in an emotional scene as they crossed into each other’s territory. This night, which marked the end of the Wall’s 28-year reign, symbolized a triumph of unity over division.

The Cold War Divide

• The Berlin Wall was erected in 1961 to stop the mass exodus of East Germans fleeing to the more prosperous West. After WWII, Germany was divided into East and West, each controlled by the Soviet Union and Western Allies, respectively.
• West Germany developed a democratic, market-based economy, while East Germany adhered to a Soviet-style regime, marked by repression and state control. By 1961, millions had already left East Germany, and the Wall was built to stop further emigration.
• For 28 years, East Germans lived under constant surveillance by the Stasi, the secret police, and harsh government control. The Berlin Wall, 4 meters tall and 156 kilometres long, separated families and restricted basic freedoms.
• Citizens were subject to extreme measures, with even minor acts of defiance resulting in severe punishment. Escape attempts were common, with some risking tunnels or hot air balloons to flee.
• Material shortages, like scarce coffee, further contributed to the psychological strain of life behind the Wall, leading to “Wall sickness,” a sense of emotional and psychological distress from the separation.

Breaking Through the Wall

• In 1989, mounting protests for greater freedoms in East Germany led to a relaxation of border restrictions. However, a botched announcement on November 9 triggered a massive exodus to the Wall, overwhelming the border guards.
• The Wall, which had separated East and West for nearly three decades, was breached, leading to emotional reunions, people climbing the Wall, and celebrations. This event, which began as a bureaucratic mistake, became one of the most significant political moments of the 20th century.
• The fall of the Berlin Wall was not only a victory for Germany but a symbol of hope for the world. It inspired freedom movements across Eastern Europe and beyond, galvanizing efforts for democratic reforms in countries like Poland and Czechoslovakia.
• The remnants of the Wall continue to be sold as souvenirs, symbolizing the triumph over oppression and division.

The Long Road to Reunification

• The fall of the Wall marked the start of Germany’s reunification process. While the event itself was euphoric, integrating two societies with vastly different political, economic, and cultural systems was challenging. The West brought economic stability, while the East faced the collapse of its state-controlled economy.
• Reunification was officially completed on October 3, 1990, but it was a process fraught with difficulties, especially for East Germans who had to adjust to a new, unfamiliar system. The transition resulted in job losses, economic instability, and cultural shifts.
• Despite progress, significant economic disparities remain between East and West Germany. The East still lags behind in GDP, income levels, and unemployment rates.
• Politically, the East is more likely to support far-right parties like the AfD, with recent elections showing strong support for the party in former East German states. Socially, East Germans often feel “left behind” and are more skeptical of issues like immigration and the European Union.

Closing the Gap

• While the gap between East and West Germany persists, it has narrowed in recent years. Economic growth in the East, supported by European Union integration, has helped close the divide.
• Though social and economic challenges remain, the reunification process has strengthened Germany’s position within Europe. Experts believe the divide, while still present, will continue to close as future generations adapt to the post-reunification reality.

Project Shaurya Gatha

GS 3: Defence: Military heritage festival

About the news

• The Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) General Anil Chauhan launched Project ‘Shaurya Gatha’, an initiative by the Department of Military Affairs and the United Service Institution (USI) of India.
• The project focuses on conserving and promoting India’s military heritage. The launch took place during the second edition of the annual Indian Military Heritage Festival, organized by the USI.
• The two-day festival aims to bring together a diverse group, including global and Indian think tanks, corporations, public and private sector undertakings, non-profit organizations, academicians, and research scholars.
• These participants focus on areas critical to India’s national security, foreign policy, military history, and heritage.

AUSTRAHIND: India-Australia Joint Military Exercise

GS 3: Defence: Joint military exercise

Why is it in the news?

• The third edition of the joint military exercise AUSTRAHIND has commenced at the Foreign Training Node in Pune, Maharashtra.
• This annual event, held alternately in India and Australia, is scheduled to run from November 8 to 21, 2024. The last AUSTRAHIND exercise was conducted in Australia in December 2023.

About the Exercise

• Exercise AUSTRAHIND aims to enhance military cooperation between India and Australia by strengthening interoperability for joint sub-conventional operations in semi-urban and semi-desert terrains under the UN Chapter VII mandate.
• Key aspects of the exercise include joint planning, physical fitness, and tactical drills.
• The exercise is structured in two phases: a combat conditioning and tactical training phase followed by a validation phase.
• Training will cover various scenarios such as responding to a simulated terrorist capture of territory, establishing a Joint Operations Centre, conducting counter-terrorism missions like Raid and Search and Destroy, securing a helipad, using drones and counter-drone strategies, and executing Special Heli Borne Operations.
• AUSTRAHIND will facilitate the exchange of best practices in tactical operations between India and Australia, fostering camaraderie and friendship among soldiers from both nations.

UNESCO’s Global Education Monitoring Report 2024

GS 2: Society: Global Education

Why is it in the news?

• The 2024 Global Education Monitoring Report was released by UNESCO at the Global Education Meeting, hosted in Fortaleza by Brazil, the current G20 President.
• This report examines global education trends and challenges, with a particular focus on the role of leadership and equitable access to education.

Key Observations from the Report

• Leaders as Agents of Change: In the education sector, leadership is viewed as a process of social influence that unites efforts towards achieving shared goals. Effective leaders in education are crucial in driving positive change.
• Role of Education Leaders: Education leaders are responsible for defining their purpose and planning strategies to enact meaningful changes. They must balance targeted learning outcomes with broader goals of equity, quality, and inclusive education.
• Funding Deficiencies: Many countries are underfunding their education systems. The report highlights that four in ten countries allocate less than 4% of their GDP to education, impacting educational quality and resources.
• Out-of-School Children: Despite efforts to improve access, 251 million children and youth remain out of school globally. Since 2015, this figure has only decreased by 1%, signalling a need for more effective solutions.
• Regional Access to Education: Central and Southern Asia have made significant strides in expanding educational access. However, countries like Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan continue to have some of the largest populations of out-of-school children globally.

Key Recommendations

• Leadership Development: To improve school effectiveness, the report recommends granting school principals more autonomy to manage their institutions, which would allow for more tailored approaches to educational management.
• System Leaders: Developing the capacities of educational officials to act as system leaders is essential. This would enable them to guide and support educational improvements on a broader scale.
• Climate Change Education: The report emphasizes the importance of integrating climate change education into the curriculum at earlier grade levels and across more subjects, rather than limiting it to science classes alone.

India’s Initiatives to Strengthen School Leadership

• National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: The NEP 2020 mandates that school principals participate in workshops designed to enhance their leadership and management skills, fostering improved school administration.
• National Initiative for School Heads’ and Teachers’ Holistic Advancement (NISHTHA): This program offers training focused on learning outcomes, school-based assessments, and learner-centred pedagogy, supporting both principals and teachers in delivering quality education.